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essentials  of 
Social  Psychology 


BY 
EMORY  S.  BOGARDUS,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  SOCIOLOGY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 

AUTHOR  OF 

"introduction  TO  SOCIOLOGY" 

"ESSENTIALS  OF  AMERICANIZATION" 


NEW  AND  ENLARGED 
EDITION 


19?0 

UNIVERSITY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 

LOS  ANGELES 


J  .4  i  J  4 


Copyright  1918,  University  of  Southern  California  Press 
Copyright  1920,  University  of  Southern  California  Press 


First  Edition,  September  1918 
Second  Edition,  April  1920 


Jesse  Ray  Miller 

University  of  Southern  California  Press 

Los  Angeles 


DEDICATED  TO 
EDITH  PRITCHARD  BOGARDUS 


CONTENTS 


I.    The  Field,  Development,  and  Literature  of  Social 

Psychology .-13 

1.  The  Field 

2.  The  Development  and  Literature  of  Social  Psy- 

chology 

IL    Psychological  Bases  of  Social  Psychology     .        .      31 

1.  Instinctive  Reactions 

2.  Habitual  Reactions 

3.  Conscious  Reactions 

(a)  Affective  Phases 

(b)  Cognitive  Phases 

(c)  Volitional  Phases 

IIL     The  Social  Personality 55 

1.  The  Social  Instincts 

(a)  Primary — Gregarious,  Sex  and  Parental, 

Play 

(b)  Secondary — Inquisitive,  Acquisitive,  Com- 

bative 

IV.    The  Social  Personality   (Continued)       ...      75 

2.  The  Social  Emotions  and  Sentiments 

3.  The  Growth  of  the  Social  Self 

4.  The  Socially  Reflected  Self 

V.    The  Social  Personality   (Continued)       ...      94 

5.  The  Communicative  Self 

6.  The  Mirthful  Self 

7.  The  Socially  Dependable  Self 

VI.    Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena     .        .        .        .117 

1.  Suggestion — Direct  and  Indirect 

2.  Suggestibility 

3.  Imitation — Conscious  and  Unconscious 

VII.    Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena  (Continued)       .    138 

4.  Fashion  Imitation 

(a)  The  Craze  and  the  Fad 

(b)  The  Social  Psychology  of  Dress 


CONTENTS 

Continued 

VIII.    Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena  (Continued)       .    155 

5.  Convention  Imitation 

6.  Custom  Imitation 

7.  Rational  and  Socio-Rational  Imitation 

IX.     Invention   and   Leadership 169 

1.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Invention 

(a)   Invention  and  Progress 

X.     Invention  and  Leadership  (Continued)     .        .        .     184 

2.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Leadership 

(a)  Qualities  of  Leadership 

(b)  Types  of  Leaders 

XI.     The   Nature  ok  Groups 202 

1.  Temporary  Groups 

(a)  The  Crowd,  Mob,  Assembly,  Public 

2.  Permanent  Groups 

XII.    Group  Conflicts 221 

1.  The  Nature  of  Group  Conflict 

2.  The  Social  Psychology  of  War 

3.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Race  Prejudice 

XIII.  Group  Loyalties 246 

1.  The  Nature  of  Group  Loyalty 

2.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Patriotism 

(a)  Types  of  Patriotism 

(b)  Nationalism  and  Internationalism 

XIV.  Group  Control 261 

I.     Agencies  of  Group  Control 

(a)   Custom,   Personal   Belief,   Law,   Govern- 
ment, Education,  Art,  Public  Opinion 

XV.     Social  Chance  and  Pkogress 276 

1.  Elements  in  Social  Change 

2.  A  Theory  of  Social  Progress 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 

(Abridged) 

This  book  is  written  specifically  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  the  problem-solving  method  of  education 
in  the  field  of  social  psychology.  To  this  end  the  main 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  formulation  of  the 
"problems"  which  appear  in  connection  with  the 
themes  of  each  chapter.  Each  of  the  problems  has 
been  tried  out  in  the  classroom  and  found  to  produce 
constructive  thought  on  the  part  of  students.  These 
exercises  are  intended  to  set  the  student  at  work  and 
to  stimulate  him  to  do  his  own  thinking. 

The  instructor  should  encourage  the  pupils  to  begin 
the  study  of  each  chapter  with  the  problems.  If  the 
student  has  an  inadequate  background  for  giving  his 
attention  first  to  the  exercises,  he  may  read  the  con- 
text, not  as  an  end  in  itself,  but  as  a  method  of  prepa- 
ration for  attacking  the  exercises.  The  context  of 
each  chapter  should  not  be  "remembered,"  but  utilized 
as  a  means  of  finding  answers,  seeing  new  relation- 
ships, and  making  new  discoveries.  If  the  student 
comes  into  the  class  remembering,  this  book  is  in- 
tended to  send  him  out  thinking. 

The  second  aim  of  the  author  has  been  to  write  a 
treatise  which  would  meet  the  needs  of  the  under- 
graduate student  in  colleges,  junior  colleges,  and  nor- 
mal schools.     The  subject  of  social  psychology  is  of 


lo  Social  Psychology 

such  vital,  far-reaching,  and  practical  importance  that 
every  college  student  should  be  introduced  to  a  scien- 
tific consideration  of  the  field.  Every  such  student  is 
compelled  to  study  the  psychology  of  the  individual; 
but  few  are  required  or  even  encouraged  to  study  the 
psychology  of  the  interactions  of  individuals  in  their 
multifarious  group  relationships.  Surely  the  latter 
phenomena  are  as  vitally  important  as  the  former. 

A  third  need  which  this  book  aims  to  meet  is  to  give 
a  new  organization  of  the  subject  matter  of  social 
psychology.  The  writer  believes  that  social  psychology 
begins  with  the  psychological  bases  of  human  inter- 
actions and  ends  with  the  group  methods  of  develop- 
ing socialized  personalities;  he  aims  to  traverse  the 
field  between  these  two  points. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  so  many  authors  that  it  is 
impossible  to  make  adequate  acknowledgments.  The 
interest  of  the  writer  in  the  subject  was  awakened  by 
Professor  G.  H.  Mead;  the  books  and  syllabi  which 
have  been  the  most  helpful  are  those  of  Professors 
McDougall,  Tarde,  Ross,  Howard,  Baldwin,  and  Ell- 
wood.  For  the  stimulus  to  develop  the  problem-solv- 
ing method  of  teaching  and  for  encouragement  in  the 
preparation  of  the  manuscript,  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  E. 
C.  Moore.  For  many  of  the  problems  that  are  given 
at  the  close  of  each  chapter,  I  am  under  obligation  to 
various  persons,  but  chiefly  Professor  Ross  and  my  ad- 
vanced students.  Sometimes  a  re-phrasing  of  a  quo- 
tation or  quoted  exercise  has  been  necessary,  in  which 
case  it  has  not  been  feasil-)le  to  use  quotation  marks 
and  thus  to  indicate  my  indebtedness.  The  encourage- 
ment   and    suggestions    of    Professor    George   Elliott 


Preface  ii 

Howard,  who  has  read  the  manuscript,  are  gratefully 
acknowledged. 

E.  S.  B. 
University  of  Southern  California 
February  21,  1918. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

In  this  edition  the  problems  have  been  re-stated  and 
increased  in  number.  They  carry  the  gist  of  the  argu- 
ment. 

The  subject  matter  has  been  re-written  and  elabo- 
rated. The  original  eight  chapters  have  grown  into 
fifteen  chapters.  Several  special  topics  have  been 
given  extended  analysis. 

Emory  S.  Bogardus. 

University  of  Southern  California, 
January  i,  1920. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY 

Chapter  I. 

THE  FIELD,  DEVELOPMENT,  AND 

LITERATURE  OF  SOCIAL 

PSYCHOLOGY 

I.  The  Field.  Social  psychology  is  the  study  of 
the  interactions  of  personalities  in  groups.  It  is  based 
upon  the  facts  and  principles  of  general  psychology. 
It  begins  with  an  interpretation  of  the  human  mind  in 
action.  It  involves  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  and 
the  functions  of  mental  processes.  This  preliminary 
field  of  study  includes  an  understanding  of  the  nature 
and  types  of  the  instinctive,  the  habitual,  and  the  con- 
scious reactions  of  the  mind.  Upon  analysis  the  con- 
scious reactions  of  a  person  show  three  phases :  affec- 
tive, cognitive,  and  volitional. 

Upon  the  conclusions  of  functional  psychology,  the 
social  psychologist  builds.  The  first  independent  step 
is  to  analyze  and  to  understand  the  traits  of  human 
personalities.  In  the  vocabulary  of  social  psychology, 
personality  is  the  first  outstanding  term.  Personali- 
ties are  composed  of  distinguishing  peculiarities  which 
combine  to  form  individuality;  personalities  also  pos- 
sess frequently  recurring  similarities  which  constitute 
sociality.  Social  psychology  generally  uses  the  term, 
individual,  in  referring  to  the  unit  member  of  a  group 


14  Social  Psychology 

of  persons;  and  the  term,  individuality,  in  describing 
that  phase  of  personality  which  distinguishes  one 
member  of  a  group  from  another.  First  of  all,  the 
social  psychologist  studies  personalities  with  their  two- 
fold nature — individuality  and  sociality. 

The  social  elements  of  personalities  are  similar  and 
manifold.  The  social  personality  is  a  rich  field  for 
the  social  psychologist.  The  social  instincts  stand  out 
prominently.  An  extensive  knowledge  of  them  is 
basic  to  a  fundamental  appreciation  of  the  interactions 
of  personalities.  They  underlie  the  growth  of  per- 
sonal character  and  social  institutions.  Common  ex- 
amples are  the  gregarious,  the  sex  and  parental,  and 
the  curiosity  instincts.  Then  there  are  other  closely 
related  phases  of  the  social  personality  which  invite 
examination.  These  elements  include  sympathy,  the 
emotions,  and  the  sentiments.  The  social  character 
represents  the  inner  citadel  of  personality.  The  social- 
mirror,  or  socially  reflected,  self  is  one  of  the  strongest 
determinants  in  human  life  and  progress.  Language 
results  from  the  attempts  of  persons  to  communicate 
with  one  another  in  the  give-and-  take  of  group  life. 
Laughter  is  a  personal  trait  which  as  a  rule  is  stimu- 
lated by  incongruous  social  situations,  or  by  ideas  that 
represent  incongruous  social  situations.  Then  there 
is  that  vast,  variegated  suggestion-imitation  phase  of 
personality  which  challenges  the  best  thinking  of  the 
social  psychologist. 

The  consideration  of  the  suggestion-imitation  ele- 
ments of  personality  leads  the  student  out  into  the 
field  of  group  phenomena.  Personalities  interacting 
in  groups  constitute  the  very  heart  and  kernel  of  social 
psychology.     At  once  suggestion-imitation  phenomena 


The  Field  15 

take  on  the  character  of  fashion  imitation  and  custom 
imitation.  These  types  of  social  action  in  turn  may- 
be analyzed  and  re-classified  under  the  titles  of  irra- 
tional imitation,  rational  imitation,  and  socio-rationai 
imitation. 

The  complementary  aspects  of  imitation  are  found 
in  invention.  Invention  is  closely"  related  in  its  na- 
ture to  discovery;  and  both  are  inherently  similar  to 
leadership.  In  social  psychology  one  of  the  high 
peaks  of  observation  and  study  is  social  leadership. 

Leadership  implies  the  conditions  of  group  life. 
These  conditions  may  be  either  temporary  or  perma- 
nent. Social  psychology  gives  special  attention  to 
temporary  groupings,  chief  of  which  are  the  crowd, 
the  mob,  and  the  assembly.  The  public  may  be  either 
temporary  or  permanent ;  it  may  be  considered  a  tran- 
sitional phenomenon  between  temporary  and  perma- 
nent groups. 

An  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  permanent  groupings 
logically  involves  an  investigation  of  the  rise  of  group 
and  social  consciousness.  The  social  psychology  of 
patriotism,  or  group  loyalty,  is  vitally  important. 
Group  loyalties  result  in  group  conflicts,  which  pro- 
duce social  changes. 

The  social  psychology  of  group  life  includes  an  ex- 
amination of  group  control,  or  social  control.  The 
unanswered  question  arises :  How  much  and  what 
kind  of  control  shall  the  group  exercise  in  order  that 
the  individual  members  may  perfect  their  personali- 
ties to  the  highest  degree  and  at  the  same  time  co- 
ordinate themselves  and  function  as  one  brain  in  ways 
that  constitute  group  progress? 


1 6  Social  Psychology 

It  is  the  individual  who  imitates,  who  works  over 
the  ideas  and  technique  of  his  time  into  new  and  ad- 
vanced forms;  it  is  the  group  which  appropriates  and 
adopts  the  inventions  of  the  few.  The  group  pos- 
sesses power  to  encourage  human  personalities  to  the 
extent  that  nearly  everyone  may  become  an  inventor 
and  contributor  to  progress,  or  it  may  carelessly  or  de- 
liberately stifle  initiative,  thereby  destroying  personal- 
ities and  inviting  group  stagnation  and  retrogression. 
Social  control  should  function  so  that  personalities 
may  perfect  themselves  in  both  the  individuality  and 
sociality  phases  of  their  natures,  and  so  that  groups 
and  human  society  may  progress. 

To  some  writers,  social  psychology  consists  chiefly 
of  a  study  of  the  social  nature  and  the  social  activities 
of  the  individual.  To  other  authors,  social  psychol- 
ogy includes  in  the  main  an  analysis  of  the  operations 
of  suggestion  and  imitation  in  society.  The  first 
method  is  essentially  subjective,  genetic,  and  psycho- 
logical; the  second  interpretation  is  largely  objective 
and  sociological. 

Fortunately,  these  two  views  of  our  subject  are 
converging.  The  new  science  of  social  psychology 
is  developing  its  own  methodology  and  speaking  from 
its  own  vantage  ground.  Its  sector  of  the  field  of  the 
social  sciences  is  that  important  territory  which  lies  in 
the  main  between  psychology  and  sociology,  which 
for  whole  stretches  is  entirely  uncultivated,  and  which 
in  other  places  is  tilled  by  both  the  psychologists  and 
sociologists.  Instead  of  permitting  its  advance  to  be 
directed  from  cither  psychological  or  sociological 
headquarters,  social  psychology  is  developing  its  own 


The  Field  17 

technique  and  programs,  but  is  remaining  subject,  of 
course,  to  the  rules  of  scientific  and  social  science  pro- 
cedure/ 

Social  psychology  lends  itself  to  the  problem-solving 
method  of  study.  The  student  must  assume  not  a 
memorizing  attitude,  but  a  problem-solving  method  of 
approach.  He  will  read  not  to  memorize,  but  in  order 
to  find  answers  and  solutions.  As  no  one  can  develop 
skill  as  a  marksman  except  by  aiming  at  targets  in  his 
practice  work,  so  no  student  can  acquire  thorough 
methods,  for  example,  in  social  psychology,  except  by 
keeping  targets  constantly  before  his  mind.  Who  is 
more  foolish  than  a  would-be  marksman  who  spends 
hour  after  hour  in  shooting  in  all  directions,  but  at  no 
particular  target?  Target-hitting  is  the  worth-while 
achievement  in  marksmanship  and  problem-solving  is 
the  valuable  goal  in  studying  social  psychology.  It  is 
expected  that  the  student  of  social  psychology,  who 
uses  this  book  will  give  his  major  attention  to  the 
.problems  at  the  close  of  each  chapter.  He  is  urged  to 
search  his  own  mind,  his  own  experiences,  and  the 
experiences  of  others,  for  solutions  of  the  given  exer- 
cises. Then  the  subject  matter  of  the  respective  chap- 
ters may  be  consulted  in  order  to  secure  additional 
light,  and  finally  the  readings  at  the  close  of  each 
chapter  will  afford  further  guidance. 

The  line  of  procedure  in  social  psychology  is  induc- 
tive, evolutionary,  and  cumulative.  It  moves  from 
the  particular  to  the  general,  from  the  individual  to 

^According  to  another  view,  social  psychology  has  no  distinct 
field  of  its  own  and  must  be  considered  as  either  psychology  or 
sociology ;  but  the  probabilities  are  that  time  will  prove  this  con- 
ception to  be  a  mistaken  one. 


1 8  Social  Psychology 

the  group,  from  the  group  to  mankind,  and  it  culmi- 
nates in  the  subject  of  social  progress.  Social  psy- 
chology approaches  the  problem  of  life  from  its  own 
viewpoint  which  is  psychological  in  origin  and  socio- 
logical in  outlook.  It  begins  with  the  socio-functional 
conclusions  of  psychology  and  ends  in  the  presenta- 
tion of  societary  principles,  which  underlie  all  sound 
reasoning  in  sociology.  Social  psychology  is  the  sci- 
entific study  of  the  social  nature  and  reactions  of  the 
human  mind,  of  the  interactions  of  minds,  of  group 
conflicts  and  change,  and  of  social  control  and  prog- 
ress. The  quintessence  of  social  psychology  is  found 
in  personalities  interacting  within  groups. 

2.  The  Development  and  Literature  of  Social  Psy- 
chology. Social  psychology  is  one  of  the  youngest 
of  the  specific  social  sciences.  It  is  in  the  making. 
In  the  United  States  the  subject  did  not  command 
widespread  attention  until  1908.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  there  was  no  book  in  America  that 
bore  the  title,  social  psychology;  and  only  one  that 
printed  the  term  in  its  sub-title.  Although  the  subject 
received  recognition  in  Europe  earlier  than  in  the 
United  States,  its  organized  development  has  acquired 
headway  chiefly  in  the  last  decade  in  our  country.  It 
has  now  won  an  established  place  in  the  curricula  of 
our  colleges  and  universities  and  of  our  leading  nor- 
mal schools. 

In  another  sense,  social  psychology  is  one  of  the 
oldest  studies.  Since  the  beginning  of  human  society 
upon  the  earth,  man  has  been  interested  in,  and  has 
given  thought  to,  the  interactions  of  personalities  in 


The  Field  19 

group  life.  The  primitive  tribe  had  its  phenomena  of 
individual  ascendancy  and  social  ascendancy  which 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  most  advanced  members. 
The  tribal  chieftain  made  rough  calculations  concern- 
ing the  probable  actions  of  his  subjects  w^hen  expe- 
riencing the  exuberance  of  victory  or  the  gloom  of 
defeat.  The  Australian  Blackfellow  who  put  a  taboo 
upon  young  cocoanuts  in  order  to  protect  them  and  to 
have  a  supply  of  them  on  a  given  feast  day  possessed 
a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  individ- 
ual ascendancy.  The  African  belle  who  wore  thirty 
pounds  of  copper  ornaments  upon  her  ankles  in  order 
to  outdo  a  rival  who  could  wear  only  twenty-five 
pounds  was  interested  in  the  social  psychology  of 
fashion. 

It  is  not  until  the  days  of  the  Greeks  that  we  find 
evidences  of  extensive  thought  in  the  field  of  social 
psychology.  Plato  gave  expression  to  many  sound 
observations  of  a  social  psychological  nature.  If  one 
person  accumulates  wealth,  others  will  imitate.  As 
a  result,  all  the  citizens  will  become  lovers  of  money. ^ 
Plato  supported  custom  imitation  and  opposed  fashion 
imitation.  Customs  represent  the  ripe  fruitage  of  the 
centuries.^  The  chief  advantage  of  laws  is  not  that 
they  make  men  honest  but  that  they  cause  them  to  act 
uniformly  and  hence  in  a  socially  dependable  way.* 
Plato  pointed  out  the  parallelism  between  a  just  society 
and  a  just  individual,  and  that  the  conduct  of  indi- 
viduals in  the  mass  is  predictable. 

'Republic,  (tr.  by  Jowett),  550  D,  E;  cf.  Laws,  (tr.  by  Jowett), 
742,  791. 
'Laws,  772. 
^Statesman,  (tr.  by  Jowett),  see  bks.  IX-XII. 


20  Social  Psychology 

According  to  Aristotle  man  is  a  political  animal, 
that  is  to  say,  man  lives  by  necessity  in  association.^ 
Social  organization,  to  Aristotle,  is  not  as  important  as 
social  attitudes.  All  people  must  become  socially- 
minded  before  there  can  be  a  perfect  government. 
The  "social  mean"  plays  a  leading  part  in  Aristotle's 
ideal  society.  The  existence  of  only  two  classes  in 
society — the  very  rich  and  the  very  poor — spells  social 
disaster.  Society  is  safe  when  the  middle  class  is  in 
control.^  Aristotle  analyzed  the  psychological  weak- 
ness of  communism  when  he  wrote,  "For  that  which  is 
common  to  the  greatest  number  has  the  least  care  be- 
stowed upon  it."^  In  the  mind  of  the  renowned  phi- 
losopher, social  process  and  development  are  ever 
uppermost. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  modern  period  of  thought. 
Sir  Thomas  More  showed  marvelous  insight  into  the 
nature  and  causes  of  human  actions.  Fashion  imita- 
tion was  forestalled  in  Utopia.®  Laws  in  Utopia  are 
few®  because  the  people  are  so  well  instructed  and  so 
socially-minded  that  numerous  laws  are  needless.  In 
not  allowing  the  Utopians  to  vote  immediately  upon 
new  issues,  More  shrewdly  safeguarded  them  against 
the  dangers  of  crowd  emotion.  More  stood  for  free- 
dom of  opinion  and  recognized  the  group  value  of 
sympathy. 

David  Hume  has  been  called  the  father  of  social 
psychology.     Upon  the  basis  of  the  instincts  and  of 

'Politics,  (tr.  by  Jowett),  I,  2. 

'Politics,  IV,  II. 

'Ibid.,  II,  3. 

'Utopia,  (Bohn's  Libraries),  pp.  148,  149. 

'Ibid.,  p.  93. 


The  Field  21 

sympathy,  he  analyzed  society.  The  sentiment  of 
sympathy  develops  into  intelligent  co-operation.  In- 
tellectual control  of  society  is  a  relatively  late  phase 
of  social  evolution.  Against  the  influence  of  environ- 
mental forces  upon  man,  Hume  placed  the  pow^er  of 
imitation  and  declared  that  group  conformity  is  due 
more  to  imitation  than  to  environment.  It  is  these 
ideas  of  Hume  that  answered  completely  the  contract 
theory  of  society  which  prevailed  at  that  time. 

In  1859,  Moritz  Lazarus  and  Heymann  Steinthal 
founded  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Volker-Psychologie  tind 
Sprachzvissenschaft,  which  they  edited  jointly  until 
1890.  In  this  journal  psychological  analyses  of  the 
traits,  peculiarities,  and  group  activities  of  primitive 
peoples  were  made.  Subsequently,  a  historical  and 
analytical  resume  of  social  origins  appeared  in  Wil- 
liam Wundt's  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology.  The 
original  work  of  W.  I.  Thomas  in  this  field  is  pub- 
lished in  Sex  and  Society,  Source  Book  for  Social 
Origins,  and  The  Polish  Peasant  in  Europe  and 
America  (particularly  volume  one).  In  this  same 
field,  Sumner's  Folkways  and  Hobhouse's  Morals  in 
Evolution  are  classics. 

Fundamental  pioneering  in  social  psychology  was 
done  by  Lester  F.  Ward.  In  1883,  Dynamic  Sociol- 
ogy v^as  published.  In  it  and  in  Psychic  Factors  in 
Civilization  and  Applied  Sociology,  Ward  made  clear 
the  importance  of  psychic  factors  in  social  evolution. 
In  the  development  of  society,  the  psychic  forces  are 
gradually  acquiring  strength.  Ultimately,  they  will 
assume  control  over  the  physical  and  the  biological 
forces.     While  his  psychology  does  not  stand  present- 


22  Social  Psychology- 

day  tests,  Ward  nevertheless  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  social  psychology. 

Gabriel  Tarde  may  be  called  the  chief  founder  of 
our  subject.  In  1890  he  published  Les  lois  de  I'imita- 
tion,  which  established  his  reputation  as  an  authority 
on  the  psychology  of  society.  Through  his  work  as  a 
jurist  he  became  interested  in  the  causes  of  human 
conduct  and  in  the  nature  of  social  processes.  He  de- 
clared that  to  understand  society  one  must  know  how 
human  minds  act  and  interact.  Through  interaction 
they  become  alike.  Imitation  is  the  key  to  the  process. 
Opposition  between  imitations  occurs,  and  inventions 
result.  Although  the  English  publicist,  Walter  Bage- 
hot,  had  written  a  chapter  on  "Imitation"  in  his  re- 
markable book.  Physics  and  Politics,  as  early  as  1872, 
Tarde  was  the  first  person  to  set  forth  comprehen- 
sively the  laws  of  imitation.  The  Laws  of  Imitation 
is  the  best  single  volume  on  that  subject.  Other  valu- 
able books  by  this  author  for  the  student  of  social 
psychology  are  La  logiqiie  sociale,  Uopposition  uni- 
verselle,  and  L'opinion  et  la  foide.  In  the  Social 
Laivs,  Tarde  gives  a  succinct  summary  of  his  main 
theories  concerning  the  psychical  processes  that  are 
taking  place  in  society.  Tarde's  conception  of  imita- 
tion is  well  summarized  and  criticized  by  Michael  M. 
Davis,  Jr.,  in  his  Psychological  Interpretations  of  So- 
ciety. In  this  book  Dr.  Davis  reviews  historically  and 
critically  the  literature  of  a  socio-psychological  nature. 
The  influence  of  Tarde  has  been  far-reaching.  A 
unif|ue  tribute  of  indebtedness  to  Tarde  has  been  given 
by  K.  A.  Ross." 

'"Preface,  Social  Psychology. 


The  Field  23 

In  1892  the  Psychologic  der  Suggestion  by  H. 
Schmidkunz  was  published.  This  book  is  a  pioneer 
work  in  the  field  in  which  The  Psychology  of  Sugges- 
tion (1911)  by  Boris  Sidis  has  become  a  well-known 
American  treatise.  In  1895  there  appeared  the  Psy- 
chologic des  foules  by  Gustave  Le  Bon.  This  volume 
at  once  created  phenomenal  interest  in  the  psychology 
of  crowds.  In  The  Psychology  of  Revolution  (with 
special  analysis  of  the  French  Revolution),  and 
in  The  Psychology  of  the  Great  War,  as  well  as  in  Le 
Bon's  other  works,  the  reader  needs  to  be  prepared  for 
an  overemphasis  of  crowd  psychology  and  for  a 
marked  lack  of  confidence  in  the  proletariat.  In  The 
Psychology  of  Peoples  Le  Bon  gives  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  leading  European  races. 

In  1896  the  Principles  of  Sociology  by  F.  H.  Gid- 
dings  developed  the  thesis  that  in  social  evolution  there 
is  an  increasing  consciousness  of  kind,  or  of  kindred 
interests,  which  becomes  the  chief  working  principle 
in  social  processes.  In  the  following  year  (1897), 
Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations  by  J.  Mark  Baldwin 
was  printed.  The  sub-title  is  "A  Study  in  Social  Psy- 
chology." This  was  the  first  time  that  the  term,  so- 
cial psychology,  was  used  in  America  in  a  title  of  a 
book.  It  presents  from  the  genetic  viewpoint  a  funda- 
mental analysis  of  the  nature  and  characteristics  of 
the  social  self.  Thus,  two  books  of  far-reaching  im- 
portance appeared  almost  simultaneously,  one  bv  a 
sociologist  and  the  other  by  a  psychologist.  They 
both  hastened  the  development  of  an  organic  social 
psychology. 

In  1902  C.  H.  Cooley's  first  book,  Human  Nature 
and  the  Social  Order  was  published.     At  once  it  was 


24  Social  Psychology 

accepted  as  an  authority  on  the  integral  relationship 
of  the  individual  self  and  the  social  self.  The  well- 
balanced,  accurate  scholarship  of  Dr.  Cooley  receives 
further  expression  in  his  Social  Organization  and  ^o- 
cial  Process.  Professor  Cooley's  three  books  should 
be  studied  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  mentioned 
here.  They  are  the  chronological  development  of  a 
logical  and  penetrating  system  of  thought  in  social 
psychology.  The  first  volume  elaborates  the  concept 
of  the  self  in  its  relations  to  group  life;  the  second 
explains  the  nature  of  primary  groups,  of  the  demo- 
cratic mind,  and  of  social  classes ;  the  third  defines  the 
many  elements  in  the  process  by  which  society  is  char- 
acterized. The  central  theme  of  the  three  books  is 
that  the  individual  and  society  are  aspects  of  the  same 
entity  and  that  the  individual  and  society  are  twin- 
born  and  twin-developed. 

The  Tardian  social  psychology  was  taken  up  by 
E.  A.  Ross,  who  has  gone  far  beyond  Tarde,  not  only 
in  his  treatment  of  conventionality  and  custom  imita- 
tion, but  in  producing  a  chef-d'oeuvre  on  the  subject 
of  social  control.  Professor  Ross'  Social  Psychology 
( 1908)  has  been  widely  read.  It  appeared  in  the  same 
year  that  William  McDougall's  Aji  Introduction  to 
Social  Psychology  was  first  printed.  These  two  books 
by  Ross  and  McDougall  established  social  psychology 
as  a  definite  branch  of  knowledge. 

Professor  Ross  used  the  sociological  and  objective 
method  in  handling  his  subject;  Mr.  McDougall  uti- 
lized the  psychological  and  subjective  viewpoint.  The 
latter  made  a  detailed  diagnosis  of  the  springs  of  social 
action  which  he  found  in  the  social  instincts  of  the 


The  Field  25 

individual.  He  gives  primarily  the  psychological 
premises  of  social  psychology  and  affords  the  student 
a  fundamental  discussion  of  the  social  instincts  and 
of  their  functioning  in  group  life.  Dr.  Ross,  on  the 
other  hand,  does  not  inquire  into  the  social  nature  of 
personality  nor  into  the  genesis  of  the  social  attitudes 
of  persons.  He  discusses  intensively  and  uniquely  the 
nature  of  suggestion-imitation  phenomena.  Custom 
imitation,  conventionality,  and  fashion  imitation  are 
favorite  themes.  While  Ross'  Social  Psychology  is 
Tardian  in  its  origin,  it  manifests  the  rare  originality 
and  phrase-making  power  of  its  author.  Where  Mr. 
McDougall  concludes  his  analysis,  Professor  Ross  be- 
gins ;  their  two  books  have  little  in  common  except  the 
title.  Consequently,  a  controversy  has  arisen  over  the 
question :  Shall  social  psychology  be  studied  subjec- 
tively or  objectively?  The  psychologists  insist  upon 
the  subjective  method;  the  sociologists  urge  the  objec- 
tive approach.  I  believe  that  the  subjective  analyses 
naturally  precede  the  objective,  that  the  two  blend  to- 
gether well,  and  that  in  the  blended  regions  the  new 
science  of  social  psychology  will  find  its  citadels  of 
strength.  Professor  Ross'  Social  Control  is  the  best 
book  upon  that  subject ;  it  constitutes  an  excellent  sup- 
plement or  complement  to  his  Social  Psychology. 

In  his  syllabus,  Social  Psychology  (1910),  George 
Elliott  Howard  maintains  the  sociological  viewpoint. 
Dr.  Howard  has  prepared  the  best  analytical  reference 
syllabus  (including  the  most  comprehensive  bibliogra- 
phy) that  is  available.  Professor  Howard  planned 
volume  Xn  of  the  'Tublications  of  the  American 
Sociological  Society."     It  is  entitled,  Social  Control, 


26  Social  Psychology 

and  contains  thirteen  papers  which  deal  with  the  his- 
tory and  the  problems  of  social  control  and  which 
constitute  an  indispensable  document  for  the  social 
psychologist.  The  initial  paper  which  was  written  by 
Professor  Howard  and  which  bears  the  title,  "Ideals 
as  a  Factor  in  the  Future  Control  of  International 
Society,"  is  a  magnum  opus. 

Charles  A.  Ellwood  in  An  Introduction  to  Social 
Psychology  (191 7)  writes  as  a  sociologist  who  con- 
stantly keeps  in  mind  the  psychological  viewpoint. 
The  book  contains  a  careful  and  synthetic  discussion 
of  the  nature  and  function  of  the  chief  psychic  ele- 
ments that  operate  in  social  life.  A  valuable  analysis 
of  social  change  under  normal  and  abnormal  condi- 
tions is  made.  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects 
(191 2)  by  the  same  author  is  an  earlier  and  standard 
work. 

Italian  contributions  are  represented  by  Paolo 
Orano's  Psicologia  sociale,  which  includes  only  a  par- 
tial treatment  of  the  subject.  Scipio  Sighele  in  La 
foule  criminelle  and  the  Psychologic  des  sectes  has 
given  a  detailed  analysis  of  groups. 

The  Great  Society  by  Graham  Wallas  is  a  penetrat- 
ing, philosophic  discussion  of  social  process  and  or- 
ganization. The  social  psychology  of  business  and 
industrial  life  has  been  indicated  by  Thorstein  Veblen 
in  The  Theory  of  Business  Enterprise,  The  Theory 
of  the  Leisure  Class,  and  The  Instinct  of  Workman- 
ship. An  incisive  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  psycho- 
sociological  forces  and  especially  of  social  control  is 
made  by  E.  C.  Hayes  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Sociology. 


The  Field  27 

The  primary  group  of  books  for  the  student  of  our 
subject  is  the  standard  works  on  the  principles  of  psy- 
chology. The  psychologies  which  bear  the  names  of 
James,  Royce,  Stout,  Titchener,  Thorndike,  An  gel! , 
Pillsbury,  and  other  authorities  are  invaluable.  They 
give  the  most  important  bases  of  our  science.  For 
further  references  and  for  citations  of  leading  articles, 
the  reader  is  directed  to  the  lists  at  the  end  of  each 
chapter  and  to  the  selected  bibliography  at  the  close 
of  this  book.  Although  social  psychology  is  new  as  a 
field  of  organized  and  scientific  study,  it  already  pos- 
sesses a  large  and  increasing  body  of  literature. 

To  the  writer,  social  psychology  begins  with  the 
psychological  analyses  of  human  personality.  It  cen- 
ters attention  upon  the  social  traits  of  personality  as 
they  express  themselves  under  group  stimuli,  and 
upon  the  resultant  group  activities.  It  concludes  its 
work  by  evaluating  the  method  of  group,  or  social, 
control  in  terms  of  socialized  personalities.  In  brief, 
the  interactions  of  personalities  in  groups  is  the  inter- 
esting and  attractive  field  which  the  student  of  social 
psychology  is  invited  to  explore. 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Before  you  began  this  study,  what  meaning  did 
the  term  "social  psychology"  have  to  you? 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  psychology  to  social 
psychology  ? 

3.  What  relation  does  social  psychology  bear  to 
sociology  ? 

4.  What  connection  do  you  observe  between  so- 


28  Social  Psychology 

cial  psychology  and  the  psychological  phases  of  sociol- 
ogy? 

5.  Which  is  the  more  important  for  the  study  of 
social  psychology,  a  knowledge  of  psychology  or  of 
sociology? 

6.  Explain  the  statement  that  formerly  psychol- 
ogy was  individualistic  in  its  interpretations. 

7.  Why  has  the  American  been  primarily  an  indi- 
vidualist ? 

8.  Is  the  American  youth  today  more  of  an  indi- 
vidualist than  his  father? 

9.  Which  is  the  more  useful,  the  study  of  individ- 
ual psychology  or  the  study  of  social  psychology? 

10.  Distinguish  between  racial  psychology  and  so- 
cial psychology. 

1 1 .  What  meaning  do  you  see  in  the  terms  "indi- 
vidual ascendency"  and  "social  ascendency"? 

12.  Would  an  abnormal  development  of  either  in- 
dividual ascendency  or  social  ascendency  be  good  for 
a  community? 

13.  When  do  you  feel  of  greater  importance — on 
a  mountain  alone,  or  as  a  member  of  a  multitude  of 
people  ? 

14.  Is  social  psychology  an  old  or  new  subject? 

15.  What  is  the  primary  cause  of  the  rise  of  social 
psychology  ? 

16.  Why  has  David  Hume  been  called  the  father 
of  social  psychology? 

17.  Why  does  Gabriel  Tarde  occupy  a  high  place 
among  the  founders  of  social  psychology? 

18.  Why  is  1908  a  red  letter  year  in  the  rise  of 
social  psychology? 


The  Field  29 

19.  What  is  your  highest  aim  in  studying  social 
psychology  ? 

20.  As  a  student  of  social  psychology  what  con- 
stitutes your  laboratory? 

21.  Do  you  expect  that  the  study  of  social  psy- 
chology will  make  you  more  dependent  upon  others, 
or  more  independent  of  others? 

READINGS 

Angell,  J.  R.,  Chapters  from  Modern  Psychology,  Ch.  VI. 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  The  Story  of  the  Mind,  Ch.  I. 

The  Individual  and  Society,  Ch.  I. 

Bentley,   M.,   "A  Preface  to   Social   Psychology,"  Psychological 

Rev.  Mon.,  1916,  No.  92,  pp.  1-25. 
Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Part  III,  Chs.  IV-VI. 
Bogardus,  E.  S.,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Ch.  XIII. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  I. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Chs.  IV,  XV. 
Dewey,  John,  "The  Need  for  Social  Psychology,"  Psychological 

Rev.,  July,  1917,  pp.  264-77. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  VI. 

An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  I. 

Gault,  R.  H.,  "Psychology  in  Social  Relations,"  Amer.  Jour,  of 

Sociol.,  XXII :  734-48. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Democracy  and  Empire,  Ch.  III. 
Hall,    G.    S.,   "Social   Phases   of   Psychology,"   Amer.   Jour,    of 

Sociol.,  XVIII:  613-21. 
Hayes,  E.  C,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XVII. 
Hobhouse,  L.  T.,  Mind  in  Evolution,  Ch.  I. 
Howard,  G.  E.,  Social  Psychology,  (syllabus),  Sect.  I. 
Leuba,  J.  H.,  "Psychology  and  Sociology,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol., 

XIX:  323-42. 
"Methods  and  Principles  of  Social  Psychology,"  Psycho- 
logical Bui.,  XIV :  397-74. 
McDougall,    William,   An    Introduction    to    Social   Psychology, 

Ch.  I. 


30  Social  Psychology 

Psychology,  Ch.  VIII. 

Maclver,  R.  M.,  "What  is  Social  Psychology?"  Sociological  Rev., 
VI:  147-60. 

Mead,  G.  H.,  "Social  Psychology  as  a  Counterpart  to  Physiologi- 
cal Psychology,"  Psychological  Bui.,  VI :  401-408. 

Orano,  Paolo,  Psicologia  sociale,  pp.  9-1 14. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  I. 

Sighele,  Scipio,  La  foule  criminelle,  pp.  1-22. 

Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology,  Ch.  II. 

Tarde,  Gabriel,  La  logique  sociale,  Ch.  II. 
Laws  of  Imitation,  Ch.  I. 

Thomas,  W.   I.,   "The  Province  of   Social  Psychology,"  Amer. 
Jour,  of  Sociol.,  X  :  445-55. 

Tosti,  G.,  "Social  Psychology  and  Sociology,"  Psychological  Rev., 
V :  347-81. 

Wallas,  Graham,  The  Great  Society,  Ch.  II. 


Chapter  II. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  BASES  OF  SOCIAL 
PSYCHOLOGY 

The  study  of  social  psychology  is  based  on  a  knowl- 
edge of  psychological  principles.  It  is  apropos  that 
attention  be  given  here  to  those  facts  of  psychology 
which  are  essential  to  an  understanding  of  the  field. 

Psychology  may  be  divided  into  two  branches,  struc- 
tural and  functional.  The  former  treats  chiefly  of 
the  states  of  consciousness,  while  the  latter  describes 
the  mind  in  action.  It  is  in  functional  psychology 
that  the  social  psychologist  is  directly  interested. 
Functional  psychology  furnishes  the  principles  for  in- 
terpreting the  social  nature  of  personality  and  for  un- 
derstanding the  interactions  of  personalities  in  group 
life.  According  to  functional  psychology  there  are 
three  general  classes  of  mental  reactions,  namely,  ( i ) 
instinctive,  (2)  habitual,  and  (3)  conscious. 

I.  Instinctive  Reactions.  Instinctive  tendencies 
are  based  on  ready-made,  inborn  co-ordination.  They 
arise  from  tropistic  and  reflex  activities.  They  are  the 
organism's  stock  in  trade  at  birth  .  They  are  psychical 
acquisitions  which  are  biologically  transmitted.  They 
are  ancestral  ways  of  meeting  common  problems  and 
conditions  of  life  in  primitive  times.  They  have  cut 
so  deep  into  the  neural  system  that  they  have  become 


32  Social  Psychology 

a  real  part  of  the  organism  and  hence  are  biologically 
passed  on  from  one  generation  to  the  next. 

An  instinct  is  a  neurologically  established  way  of 
meeting  a  given  situation.  It  is  a  tendency  to  do  this 
or  that  thing.  It  is  set  off  automatically,  and  always 
in  the  same  way,  whenever  the  organism  receives  a 
certain  stimulus.  It  has  evolved  in  the  process  of 
adaptation  of  species  to  environment.  It  is  a  triple 
alliance  of  "sense-stimulus,  central  adjustment,  and 
muscular  response."  An  instinct  is  a  crude,  blind, 
and  ready-made  unit  of  behavior  for  solving  fre- 
quently recurring  problems.  It  serves  the  individual 
well  until  he  finds  himself  face  to  face  with  an  abso- 
lutely new  problem. 

An  instinct  is  a  way  of  acting  ( i )  which  promotes 
the  welfare  of  the  individual  himself,  (2)  which  per- 
petuates the  species,  or  (3)  which  may  even  advance 
the  welfare  of  the  species.  These  ends,  however,  are 
not  ordinarily  sought  consciously.  The  chick  which 
hears  the  warning  cluck  and  runs  to  the  mother  hen 
does  not  stop  to  inform  itself  that  it  must  run  to 
cover  for  self-preservation.  The  warning  cry  was 
the  sense-impression  to  which  the  chick  automatically 
responded.  Chicks  that  do  not  respond  to  warning 
calls  soon  lose  their  lives;  those  that  heed  promptly 
are  saved,  and  become  the  progenitors  of  a  line  of 
chicks  which  are  characterized  by  this  type  of  instinct- 
ive behavior. 

In  the  same  way  the  instincts  which  function  to 
perpetuate  the  species  operate  blindly,  and  not  because 
the  desire  is  present  to  increase  the  number  of  the 
members   of   the   species.     The   prevalence   of   large 


Psychological  Bases  33 

families  a  century  ago  in  the  United  States,  or  today 
among  the  poorer  classes,  does  not  mean  at  all  that 
the  parents  in  question  were  or  are  motivated  by  defi- 
nite plans  to  build  up  the  race  numerically. 

Instincts  which  serve  to  advance  human  welfare 
function  as  a  rule  in  unconscious  ways.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  self-sacrificing,  altruistic  deeds  are  per- 
formed without  thought  of  benefitting  the  race,  e,  g., 
the  multitudinous  acts  of  self-sacrifice  of  the  mother 
in  behalf  of  her  infant.  It  is  highly  fortunate,  in 
fact,  that  social  conduct  can  be  reduced  in  a  large 
percentage  of  instances  to  instinctive  reactions. 

The  innate,  or  inherited,  tendencies  are  the  essen- 
tial springs  or  motive  forces  of  feeling,  thought,  and 
action — whether  individual  or  collective.^  They  are 
the  foundations  from  which  personality  develops; 
they  are  the  elementary  factors  upon  which  character 
is  constructed.  All  that  we  learn  and  all  our  mastery 
of  life  is  built  upon  the  basis  of  our  equipment  of 
instincts.  Our  later  adaptations  are  modifications  of 
these  original,  inherited  reactions. 

An  instinct  cannot  be  developed  in  one's  life  time; 
neither  can  it  be  rooted  out  in  a  life  time.  It  can,  of 
course,  be  greatly  modified,  or  entirely  covered  up  as 
far  as  observers  are  concerned.  The  instincts  remain 
exceedingly  close  to  the  core  of  personality — to  the 
inmost  citadel  of  one's  self,  which  is  rarely  disclosed 
to  others. 

The  instincts  are  also  at  the  root  of  societary  life. 
The    interactions   between    personalities    possess    in- 

The  best  chapter  on  this  point  is  William  McDougall's,  An 
Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  II. 


34  Social  Psychology 

stinctive  traits.  The  leading  social  structures  and  in- 
stitutions have  had  their  origins  in  instincts.  Behind 
fraternal  organizations  and  even  nation-states  is  the 
silent,  powerful  operation  of  the  gregarious  instinct. 
The  family  as  a  social  institution  arises  from  the  sex 
and  parental  impulses.  The  institutions  of  private 
property  and  inheritance  developed  from  the  acquisi- 
tive instinct. 

2.  Habitual  Reactions.  The  failure  of  an  instinct 
to  function  successfully  in  a  new  situation  leads  to 
the  appearance  of  consciousness  and  to  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  instinctive  ways  of  acting.  The  modifica- 
tion of  the  instinctive  reaction  may  be  slight,  or  it 
may  be  so  extensive  that  it  changes  the  course  of  the 
instinct.  The  modification  when  repeated  many  times 
becomes  habitual.  Both  new  and  old  habits  them- 
selves may  prove  faulty  under  new  conditions,  and 
through  the  action  of  consciousness  may  be  made 
over.  Hence,  habits  are  modifications  of  instincts  or 
of  previously  formed  habits. 

It  should  be  stated  here  that  the  concept  of  "crisis," 
as  used  by  W.  I.  Thomas,  is  a  useful  tool.^  When- 
ever an  established  way  of  doing,  either  instinctive  or 
habitual,  proves  inadequate,  a  crisis  has  occurred. 
Attention  is  at  once  centered  upon  the  established 
reaction  which  has  failed,  and  it  is  altered  to  meet 
the  new  needs.  Repetition  of  the  alteration  results 
in  the  establishment  of  a  new  habit.  A  "crisis"  may 
be  either  individual  or  social  or  both. 

The  small  boys  who  lived  in  one  corner  of  a  rural 

'This  valuable  concept  is  explained  in  detail  in  the  Source 
Book  for  Social  Origins  by  W.  I.  Thomas,  pp.  i8  ff. 


Psychological  Bases  35 

school  district  in  Illinois  were  accustomed  to  walk  to 
and  from  school  in  a  single,  winding  file  across  the 
farmers'  fields.  By  taking  a  cross-country  route  the 
distance  to  school  was  considerably  shortened.  Fur- 
ther, the  boys  had  the  pleasure  of  making  a  path 
across  the  fields.  One  spring  morning  when  the  boys 
were  moving  joyfully  along  this  path  which  led 
through  a  waving  oat  field,  they  were  unexpectedly 
intercepted  by  an  irate  farmer — the  owner  of  the 
field.  A  crisis  occurred.  Habits  were  challenged  and 
a  new  way  of  going  to  school  was  sought,  and  found. 

The  actions  of  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life  are 
chiefly  tropistic,  reflex,  or  instinctive.  Within  narrow 
limits,  higher  animals  adapt  their  instinctive  reactions 
to  peculiar  or  new  circumstances,  and  acquire  rudi- 
mentary habits.  Man  modifies  his  instincts  so  com- 
pletely that  they  operate  almost  entirely  in  hidden 
ways.  If  his  gregarious  instinct  causes  him  to  con- 
centrate his  attention  on  a  few  friends,  he  is  dubbed 
cliquish.  If  his  sex  instinct  causes  him  "to  make 
love"  in  public,  he  is  at  once  ridiculed.  If  his  acquisi- 
tive instinct  moves  him  to  express  frankly  his  desire 
to  accumulate  wealth,  he  is  referred  to  insinuatingly  as 
a  lover  of  mammon.  In  consequence,  man  conceals 
the  instinctive  desires  behind  camouflaged  habits.  He 
suppresses  the  open  expression  of  instinctive  tenden- 
cies with  a  set  of  habitual  ways  of  doing  which  meet 
the  demands  of  propriety  and  society. 

It  is  the  privilege  of  human  beings  deliberately  to 
modify  their  instincts  and  habits,  and  to  build  up  new 
habits  which  will  make  them  masters  of  themselves 
and  to  a  degree  of  their  environment.     Within  limits, 


36  Social  Psychology 

a  young  person  who  has  a  normal  social  environment 
can  acquire  habits  in  almost  any  direction  that  he 
wills.  It  is  a  fortunate  child  who  has  parents  and 
teachers  who  impress  him  with  the  fact  that  he  can 
plan  his  habits,  and  deliberately  set  out  to  build  up  a 
constructive  habitual  way  of  acting. 

Virtues  and  vices  are  striking  illustrations  of  habit. 
He  who  teaches  a  child  to  build  constructive  habits 
into  his  neurological  system  is  one  of  the  greatest 
benefactors  of  mankind.  He  who  influences  a  child 
to  develop  negative  habits,  or  permits  him  to  do  so,  is 
in  that  regard  anti-social. 

Habit  is  a  leading  factor  in  accelerating  or  hinder- 
ing social  advance.  Ordinarily  too  little  attention  is 
given  to  the  constructive  nature  of  habit.^  ( i )  Habit 
is  a  valuable  time-saver,  both  individually  and  socially. 
Suppose  that  the  grocer  had  to  learn  to  read  every 
time  that  he  filled  an  order  for  a  customer,  that  an 
engineer  had  to  learn  to  operate  an  engine  whenever 
he  started  out  upon  his  regular  run,  or  that  a  banker 
had  to  learn  the  numeral  system  whenever  he  trans- 
acted business  for  a  patron — these  suppositions  indi- 
cate the  almost  inconceivable  dependence  of  modern 
social  processes  upon  habit. 

(2)  Habit  increases  both  individual  and  social 
accuracy.  Note  the  difference  between  driving  a  nail 
the  first  time  and  the  twentieth.  Compare  the  accur- 
acy of  a  piano  novice  and  a  Paderewski.  Observe 
the  difiference  in  movements  and  despatch  of  a  group 
of  recruits  and  a  trained  regiment.     It  is  strangely 

'Two  splendid  chapters  on  this  subject  are  in  William  James* 
Psychology  (briefer  course)  and  in  W.  D.  Scott's  Increasing 
Human  Efficiency  in  Business. 


Psychological  Bases  37 

true  that  nothing  is  well  done  until  it  is  done  by  habit. 
Reliability  and  thoroughness  depend  on  habit. 

(3)  Habit  enables  one  to  do  a  large  amount  of 
work  with  a  relatively  small  degree  of  fatigue.  The 
first  hundred  miles  that  one  drives  an  automobile  in 
learning  is  more  wearing  upon  him  than  the  second 
thousand  miles  that  he  drives.  The  learning  processes 
in  any  field  are  usually  very  fatiguing  until  they  be- 
come habitual.  Reduction  of  new  processes  to  habit 
releases  the  energy  of  the  individual  for  new  activi- 
ties and  enables  him  to  accomplish  a  large  amount  of 
work  with  a  minimum  expenditure  of  strength. 

(4)  Habit  releases  the  mind  from  the  necessity 
of  paying  attention  to  the  details  of  the  successive 
steps  of  an  act.  He  who  has  a  large  number  of  well- 
established  constructive  habits  is  free  to  center  his 
whole  attention  to  the  best  advantage  on  the  problem 
of  the  hour.  If  it  is  true  that  the  man  who  is  in  the 
grip  of  habit  is  a  slave,  it  may  be  also  true  that  he 
is  the  best  prepared  to  advance.  He  is  a  slave  when 
the  habit  is  destructive;  he  is  a  fortunately  free  man 
if  the  habit  is  constructive.  Destructive  habits  are 
often  acquired  as  a  result  of  unconscious  adaptation. 
Unless  individuals  are  taught  or  are  wise  enough  to 
build  up  constructive  habits,  unconscious  and  passive 
adaptation  will  likely  bring  about  destructive  or  use- 
less habits.  Life  is  a  contest  between  personality  and 
habit.  If  we  do  not  acquire  constructive  habits,  de- 
structive habits  will  acquire  us.  Herein  lies  the  dif- 
ference between  individual  freedom  and  slavery. 

(5)  Habit  means  to  have.  Habit  gives  posses- 
sion; it   gives  permanency  to  one's   experiences.     A 


r:  9  7  r  9 


38  Social  Psychology 

city  milkman  who  left  his  horse  and  wagon  at  the 
curb  for  a  moment  was  surprised  upon  his  return  to 
see  the  horse,  with  the  milk  cans  rolling  from  the 
wagon,  pursuing  at  a  gallop  the  fire  department's 
wagon  that  had  passed.  Several  years  previously  the 
horse  had  become  a  well-trained  member  of  the  fire 
department,  and  on  this  occasion  his  former  habits 
had  been  immediately  stimulated  by  the  clanging  gong 
of  the  fire  department's  wagon.  Although  I  learned 
to  ride  a  bicycle  several  years  ago,  it  has  now  been  five 
years  since  I  have  ridden.  But  I  would  not  hesitate 
today  to  get  on  a  bicycle  and  start  off,  and  within  a 
few  minutes  I  should  expect  to  feel  perfectly  at  home 
again  upon  a  "wheel."  The  process  of  riding  was 
long  ago  reduced  to  a  habit  which  remains  with  me. 
To  reduce  one's  constructive  ways  of  doing,  of  think- 
ing, and  of  judging  to  habit  is  a  valuable  enterprise. 
Such  a  process  is  the  essence  of  learning. 

(6)  Habits  signify  stability.  A  person  with 
strength  of  character  possesses  a  number  of  well-or- 
ganized habits.  The  reliability  of  a  person  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  he  has  habits  and  hence  acts  with  a  cer- 
tain uniformity  in  given  situations.  His  honesty  or 
dishonesty  is  largely  a  matter  of  habit;  he  who  is 
trusted  is  ordinarily  the  person  who  is  honest  by  habit. 
Reliable  habits  are  socially  negative  or  positive.  Ac- 
cording to  his  habits,  a  person  is  entirely  dependable 
— dependable  to  vote  for  the  saloon,  dependable  to 
accept  the  easy  task,  dependable  to  exploit,  depend- 
able to  beg,  dependable  to  steal.  Another  person  can 
be  depended  on  to  vote  for  child  welfare  measures,  to 
refuse  bribes,  to  render  public  service  at  the  expense 


Psychological  Bases  39 

of  his  own  business.  The  highest  type  of  habits  is 
socialized  habits,  whereby  the  individual  habitually 
responds  to  public  welfare  or  to  individual  welfare 
which  is  in  line  with  public  welfare. 

But  habitual  reactions  are  subordinate  in  import- 
ance to  conscious  activities.  It  is  through  conscious- 
ness that  personality  grows  and  becomes  more  useful. 

(3)  Conscious  Reactions.  Besides  instinctive  and 
habitual  tendencies,  there  are  marginal  reactions  of  a 
conscious  nature.  Conscious  reactions  are  made 
chiefly  at  those  points  where  the  neuro-physiological 
mechanism  is  incapable  of  meeting  the  demands  of  the 
environment,  that  is,  where  instincts  and  habits  fail. 
Consciousness  appears  where  changes,  or  new  adjust- 
ments are  necessary;  it  is  the  chief  factor  in  the  pro- 
cess which  is  known  as  adjustment  to  environment, 
and  particularly  in  active  adaptation.  Conscious  re- 
actions have  three  characteristics :  ( i )  affective,  or 
the  feeling  phase;  (2)  cognitive,  or  the  thinking 
phase;  and  (3)  volitional,  or  the  willing  phase.* 

The  feelings  are  a  development  of  the  instinctive 
side  of  life.  At  the  council  table  of  consciousness, 
the  instincts  have  representation  in  the  form  of  the 
feelings.  Although  as  old  in  its  origin  as  the  in- 
stinctive tendencies,  the  feeling  side  of  life  developed 
later,  phylogenetically,  than  the  instincts.  The  feel- 
ings are  the  pleasant  or  unpleasant  tones  of  conscious- 
ness.^ An  idea  which  furthers  my  momentary  inter- 
ests is  at  once  accompanied  by  an  agreeable  tone  of 

*Cf.    I.  E.  Miller,  The  Psychology  of  Thinking,  pp.  64  ff. 
'C/.     C.  A.  Ellwood,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology, 
Ch.  XIV. 


40  Social  Psychology 

consciousness;  while  an  idea  which  thwarts  those  in- 
terests is  instantaneously  undermined  by  a  disagreeable 
feeling.®  An  act  which  as  a  rule  has  been  favorable 
in  the  past  to  the  organism  or  to  the  race  or  to  both 
produces  an  agreeable  tone  of  consciousness.  If  some 
one  were  to  suggest  to  me  at  the  present  moment  a 
Adsit  to  the  dentist's  chair,  I  should  suffer  an  unpleas- 
ant tone  of  consciousness,  because  my  early  experi- 
ences in  the  dentist's  chair  were  exceedingly  painful. 
On  the  other  hand  if  some  one  were  to  suggest  to  me 
a  beefsteak  fry  in  the  Rockies,  I  should  experience  a 
highly  agreeable  tone  of  consciousness.  In  fact  the 
simple  thought  of  frying  beefsteak  gives  me  a  pleas- 
ant feeling. 

The  agreeable  or  disagreeable  tone  appears  quickly 
and  in  far  less  time  than  is  required  to  analyze  and  to 
evaluate  the  given  suggestion.  In  other  words,  the 
feeling  character  of  consciousness  gives  a  quicker- 
than-thought  evaluation  to  a  proposed  activity  upon 
the  basis  of  past  experience,  not  only  of  the  organism 
itself,  but  also  of  the  race.  It  was  this  conception 
which  Plato  undoubtedly  had  in  mind  when  he  said 
that  there  are  two  counsellors  in  one's  bosom,  one  is 
pleasure  and  the  other  is  pain.'^ 

A  pleasurable  feeling  that  accompanies  a  given  idea 
indicates  that  in  the  history  of  the  organism,  or  of  the 
race,  the  group  of  acts  to  which  the  given  idea  is  re- 
lated has  been  helpful  and  constructive.  The  pleas- 
urable tone  implies  but  does  not  necessarily  prove  the 
present  value  of  a  given  act.  The  fact  that  a  certain 
type  of  acts  in  the  past  has  been  helpful  or  harmful 

•C/.     J.  R.  Angell,  Psychology,  Ch.  XIV. 
''Laws,  tr.  by  Jowett,  p.  644. 


Psychological  Bases  41 

indicates  that  in  all  probability  this  type  will  continue 
to  be  helpful  or  harmful.  If  conditions  change,  how- 
ever, this  implication  will  probably  not  be  realized. 

People  are  peculiarly  alike  in  their  feelings — an 
observation  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  people  have 
had  about  the  same  racial  experience.  In  this  long 
racial  history,  certain  ways  of  doing  have  proved 
favorable  to  race  development;  and  others,  unfavor- 
able. A  given  activity  will  fall  into  one  of  two  main 
groupings  of  race  experience  and  the  reaction  in  all 
individuals  who  come  in  contact  with  this  idea  is  the 
same — a  pleasant  or  unpleasant  tone  of  consciousness 
in  accordance  with  the  favorable  or  unfavorable  race 
experience  with  this  type  of  activity. 

It  is  difficult  to  argue  against  the  feelings.  There 
are  many  reasons.  An  important  explanation  is  that 
the  feelings  are  outside  the  plane  of  cognition.  Cog- 
nition can  recognize,  describe,  and  classify  the  events 
which  lead  to  the  expression  of  a  given  feeling,  but 
can  not  do  much  else.  An  Idea  which  is  thrown 
against  the  feelings  by  way  of  an  argument  travels 
on  an  entirely  different  plane.  The  best  way  to 
"argue"  against  the  feelings  is  to  stimulate  counter 
feelings. 

Another  cause  of  the  difficulty  of  arguing  against 
the  feelings  is  the  fact  that  the  feelings  developed 
much  earlier,  phylogenetically,  than  cognition.  The 
feelings  are  older  and  more  deep-seated  than  ideas. 
They  are  closer  to  the  inner  core  of  consciousness. 
Consequently  they  are  not  reached  by  the  younger  and 
less  deep-rooted  thought  side  of  life. 

A  person  who  moves  according  to  his  feelings  acts 


42  Social  Psychology 

usually  in  harmony  with  the  dictates  of  race  experi- 
ence. In  so  far  as  racial  history  is  similar  to  present 
conditions,  he  thus  acts  wisely.  The  conditions  of 
life,  however,  whether  physical  or  social,  are  con- 
stantly undergoing  change.  Hence,  racial  or  even 
individual  experience  is  not  always  a  safe  guide.  An- 
other factor  is  necessary,  namely,  cognition. 

Cognition  is  the  central  nucleus  of  consciousness. 
Cognition  developed  to  aid  the  organism  to  adjust 
itself  to  new  factors  in  the  environment.  If  there 
were  no  new  problems  to  solve,  then  the  feelings — 
representing  past  experience — would  be  adequate.  In 
a  social  environment,  characterized  by  change  and 
marked  by  constantly  arising  new  situations,  the  feel- 
ings are  insufficient.  An  additional  element  is  re- 
c[uired;  cognition  meets  this  need.  With  the  feeling 
side  of  consciousness  to  evaluate  acts  on  the  basis  of 
past  experience,  and  with  the  cognitive  phase  to  evalu- 
ate acts  on  the  basis  of  present  conditions  and  future 
probabilities,  a  person  is  well  equipped  to  solve  the 
problems  of  life. 

As  the  social  environment  is  more  changeable  and 
gives  rise  to  more  new  problems  than  the  physical 
environment,  cognition  in  a  surprising  degree  is  a 
social  product.  Its  development  has  come  in  response 
to  the  changing  elements  in  the  social  environment. 
It  is  probable  that  an  average  child  who  grew  from 
birth  to  adult  life  with  no  social  contacts,  that  is,  out- 
side group  life,  would  not  advance  beyond  a  state  of 
mental  groveling.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of 
an  ordinary  individual,  the  effects  of  an  unusually 
stimulating  social  and  mental  environment  are  clearly 


Psychological  Bases  43 

seen.  The  term,  "high  potential  of  the  city,"  coined 
by  E.  A.  Ross,  refers  to  the  relatively  large  number 
of  mental  stimulations  which  come  to  an  urban  resi- 
dent in  a  day  and  which  normally  result  in  increased 
mental  activity. 

The  imagination  is  a  vital  phase  of  cognition.  To 
imagine  is  to  think  of  reality  in  terms  of  images.  The 
purpose  of  imagination  is  to  make  the  real  seem  more 
real.  It  operates  even  in  abstract  thinking.  The 
public  speaker  continually  utilizes  images  in  order  to 
present  his  ideas  to  his  audience.  The  crowd  or  even 
the  ordinary  audience  thinks  almost  entirely  in  terms 
of  images.  The  advanced  experimenter  in  the  labora- 
tory imagines  one  possible  solution  after  another  to  a 
problem  and  proceeds  to  try  out  the  imagined  solu- 
tions consecutively  until  he  comes  upon  the  correct 
combination.  His  success  depends  in  part  upon  his 
ability  to  imagine  a  variety  of  experiments. 

Imagination  enables  one  to  put  himself  in  the  place 
of  others.  According  to  Balzac,  imagination  permits 
one  to  slip  into  the  skins  of  other  persons.  A  selfish 
man  is  unable  or  unwilling  to  imagine  himself  in  the 
positions  of  others.  Imagination  is  a  basic  element 
in  sympathy,  and  socialized  imagination  is  essential 
to  social  progress. 

Remembering  is  another  element  of  the  cognitive 
phase  of  consciousness.  To  remember  is  to  think  an 
idea  that  one  has  thought  before  with  the  added  con- 
sciousness that  one  has  thought  it  before.  To  remem- 
ber is  to  re-create  an  idea  that  one  has  already  thought 
about.  The  re-creating  process  means  that  in  remem- 
bering, the  individual  may  easily  and  unconsciously 


44  Social  Psychology 

change  the  character  of  the  given  idea.  Hence  the 
frequent  inaccuracy  in  remembering. 

Many  persons  blindly  complain  of  their  poor  memo- 
ries. Others  patronize  the  so-called  memory  training 
schools  and  expend  more  energy  in  trying  to  memorize 
and  utilize  a  set  of  abstract  formulae  than  is  necessary 
in  remembering  by  the  use  of  natural  methods.  All 
who  complain  of  poor  memories  overlook  the  fact  that 
they  are  probably  using  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
retentive  ability  which  they  have  inherited.  They 
need  to  know  that  they  can  learn  anything  that  they 
want  to  if  they  get  interested  in  it  sufficiently.  They 
need  to  utilize  the  law  of  the  association  of  ideas,  that 
is,  to  analyze  the  given  new  idea  and  connect  it,  or 
some  part  of  it,  with  an  idea,  or  a  train  of  ideas,  that 
is  already  established.  They  need  to  learn  the  im- 
portance of  expressing  to  others  frequently  that  which 
they  would  remember. 

The  highest  form  of  cognition  is  reason.  Pure 
reason  takes  cognizance  of  factors  present  in  neither 
time  nor  space;  it  considers  a  larger  environment  than 
that  which  is  present  to  the  senses.  Reason  is  a  su- 
preme adjustor.  It  enables  a  person  to  adjust  him- 
self to  the  factors  of  a  world  environment.  It  assists 
an  individual  in  becoming  so  adapted  to  his  social  and 
universal  environments  that  he  develops  a  perfected 
and  socialized  personality. 

The  third  characteristic  of  consciousness  is  volition. 
Consciousness  can  make  evaluations,  not  only  upon 
the  basis  of  past  experience,  and  with  reference  to 
present  needs  and  future  probabilities,  but  it  can  also 
choose   between   several   proposed   activities  and  act 


Psychological  Bases  45 

upon  the  given  choice.  In  one  sense  volition  is  the 
choosing  phase  of  consciousness ;  in  another  sense,  it  is 
the  acting  side  of  consciousness,  that  is,  it  is  the  indi- 
vidual acting. 

While  many  choices  are  probably  made  upon  bases 
which  are  largely  determined  by  hereditary  and  en- 
vironmental factors,  there  is  left  a  certain  margin 
wherein  the  individual  may  make  choices.  This  mar- 
gin of  freedom  in  choosing  is  undoubtedly  a  result  of 
selection.  Individuals  with  a  reserve  of  freedom  sur- 
vive better  and  are  able  to  adjust  themselves  more 
satisfactorily  to  their  social  environment  with  its 
changing  elements  than  persons  without  this  advan- 
tage. The  margin  of  choice  would  be  useless  in  a 
static  environment,  or  in  a  purely  physical,  material- 
istic, and  mechanistic  universe.  Volition  has  its  fun- 
damental roots  in  the  changing  factors  of  social  life. 
If  not  in  its  origin  then  in  its  development,  volition 
is  social. 

The  margin  of  freedom  in  making  choices  varies. 
When  health  conditions  are  unfavorable,  when  poverty 
pinches,  when  wealth  inflates,  the  margin  shrinks. 
For  every  person  the  margin  varies  from  hour  to 
hour.  For  nearly  all  persons  and  at  nearly  all  times, 
this  limited  freedom  in  choosing  is  in  many  ways  the 
most  significant  psychical  characteristic  that  they 
possess. 

The  marginal  degree  of  freedom  means  that  per- 
sonality is  not  completely  plastic.  Within  limits,  per- 
sonality is  independent  of  environment.  Consciously 
and  unconsciously  a  person  continually  makes  choices 
among  the  countless  stimuli  with  which  he  is  bom- 


46  Social  Psychology 

barded.  He  acts  within  the  range  of  his  limited  free- 
dom and  upon  the  basis  of  his  organic  needs  and  of 
his  acquired  habitual  needs.  These  psychological 
boundaries  denote  the  field  within  which  personality 
develops. 

Every  person  is  active.  Personality  is  activity. 
Personality  expresses  itself  and  to  a  degree  makes 
over  its  environment.  Since  personality  is  activity,  it 
possesses  force,  and  it  can  make  over  the  conditions 
under  which  it  lives.  Personality,  moreover,  is  intelli- 
gent force  and  can  exercise  wisdom  in  modifying  its 
environment.  The  more  highly  developed  the  per- 
sonality, the  greater  the  control  that  it  may  exercise 
over  its  conditions  of  life.  The  more  socialized  the 
personality,  the  greater  the  influence  that  it  will  wield 
in  behalf  of  public  welfare. 

A  person  does  not  simply  make  choices,  and  rest 
there.  He  carries  out  the  accepted  idea.  Every  idea 
is  dynamic  and  tends  to  carry  itself  out  into  action — 
this  is  the  primary  fact  in  acting  and  doing.  If  there 
are  no  inhibiting  tendencies  or  obstructive  environ- 
mental factors,  acting  and  doing  are  easy.  When  the 
given  choice  arouses  inhibitions  or  encounters  environ- 
mental obstacles,  action  is  difiicult.  Consequently,  the 
individual  must  will  to  act;  he  must  develop  the  habit 
of  overcoming.  The  individual  must  be  trained,  and 
train  himself  to  keep  his  eye  upon  and  think  of  the 
gains  which  result  from  overcoming  obstacles.  The 
idea  of  public  service  may  become  so  strong  that  in- 
dividuals will  regularly  inhibit  selfish  impulses  or  over- 
come socially  vicious  temptations. 

The  result  of  acting  and  doing  is  learning.     It  is  in 


Psychological  Bases  47 

carrying  choices  into  effect  that  one  really  learns  the 
meaning  of  them.  The  experimental  laboratory  sur- 
passes the  class  room  because  it  offers  many  more  op- 
portunities for  carrying  out  ideas.  Discussions  are  su- 
perior to  lectures  because  they  provide  an  open  field  for 
expression.  Action  underlies  learning.  I  could  sit 
beside  a  chauffeur  and  watch  him  carefully  in  his 
handling  of  an  automobile  every  day  for  a  year,  but 
at  the  end  of  that  time  I  could  not  be  a  safe  driver. 
It  is  in  actual  driving  that  I  become  trustworthy  at  the 
wheel.  Action,  therefore,  leads  to  learning,  achiev- 
ing, progressing. 

The  psychological  fundamentals  of  social  psychol- 
ogy are  instinctive,  habitual,  and  conscious  reactions. 
The  latter  possesses  a  complex,  three-fold  nature — 
affective,  cognitive,  and  volitional.  The  discussion  of 
these  subjects  leads  to  the  theme  of  the  three  following 
chapters,  the  social  personality,  which  is  the  first  main 
topic  in  social  psychology  proper  and  one  of  the  most 
attractive  topics  in  the  entire  field. 


PROBLEMS 

(INSTINCTIVE  REACTIONS) 

1.  What  is  an  instinctive  reaction? 

2.  What  is  the  origin  of  instincts? 

3.  What  is  the  most  striking  example  of  purely  in- 
stinctive action  that  you  can  give? 


48  Social  Psychology 

4.  Why  are  instincts  common  to  people  of  every 
race? 

5.  Why  can  instincts  never  be  eradicated  from 
the  mental  constitution  of  the  individual? 

6.  Distinguish  between   individual   instincts  and 
social  instincts. 

7.  What  social  instincts  can  you  name  ? 

8.  Illustrate  the   statement:      Social   institutions 
rest  upon  the  basis  of  instincts. 


(HABITUAL  REACTIONS) 


9.     What  is  the  origin  of  habits? 

10.  What  is  the  derivation  of  the  term,  habit? 

11.  What  is  the  underlying  purpose  of  habits? 

12.  Criticize    the    statement:       He    instinctively 
closed  the  door. 

13.  Why  are  habits  so  commonly  deprecated? 

14.  Give  an  original  illustration  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing statements : 

(a)  Habit  is  a  time-saver. 

(b)  Habit  increases  accuracy. 

(c)  Habit  gives  permanency  to  experience. 

(d)  Habit  gives  strength  of  character. 

15.  Explain:     "Habit  is  the  bank  into  which  con- 
sciousness puts  its  deposits." 

16.  Explain:      Speed  which  is  habitual  is  never 
hurried. 


Psychological  Bases  49 

17.  Explain:  The  population  of  London  would 
be  starved  in  a  week  if  the  flywheel  of  habit  were  re- 
moved. 

18.  Why  is  it  true  that  whatever  is  worth  doing 
at  all  is  worth  doing  well  ? 

19.  What  is  the  habit  of  greatest  usefulness  that 
one  can  form  ? 

20.  How  can  you  proceed  psychologically  to  break 
a  habit? 

21.  What  classes  of  habits  are  the  most  difficult  to 
overcome  ? 

22.  Which  would  represent  a  greater  loss  to  the 
individual,  the  loss  of  his  habits  or  the  loss  of  his 
instincts  ? 

23.  Explain :  "There  is  no  more  miserable  person 
than  one  in  whom  nothing  is  habitual  but  indecision." 

24.  Which  will  be  used  in  the  following  cases,  in- 
stinct or  habit? 

(a)  By  an  untrained  puppy  when  his  mistress 
appears  with  a  plate  of  scraps. 

(b)  By  a  trained  puppy  under  similar  circum- 
stances. 

(c)  By  a  salmon  in  a  whirling  current  of  a 
river. 

(d)  By  a  fireman  who  sees  a  house  on  fire. 

(e)  By  a  mother  whose  child  is  in  imminent 
danger. 

25.  Compare  the  evils  of  occasional  lying  and 
habitual  lying. 

26.  Name  one  good  habit  that  you  have  formed 
during  the  past  year. 


50  Social  Psychology 

(CONSCIOUS  REACTIONS) 
(General) 

27.  When  does  consciousness  arise  in  the  experi- 
ence of  an  individual? 

28.  In  a  qualitative  sense  which  procedure  is  the 
more  difficult  to  learn  in  each  of  the  following  cases: 

(a)  Writing  or  walking ; 

(b)  Thinking  or  writing; 

(c)  Deciding  "no"  or  deciding  "yes"? 

(Affective) 

29.  What  does  a  pleasant  feeling  signify? 

30.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  argue  against  the  feel- 
ings? 

31.  Why  are  human  beings  so  much  alike  in  their 
feelings? 

32.  Why  do  you  ever  think? 

33.  Why  are  you  thinking  now? 

34.  When  during  your  waking  hours  do  you  think 
least? 

35.  When  do  you  think  the  most  strenuously? 

36.  When  do  you  do  the  highest  grade  of  think- 
ing? 

37.  Does  a  squirrel  need  to  be  more  intelligent 
than  a  fish  ? 

38.  Does  an  architect  need  to  be  more  intelligent 
than  a  mason? 

39.  Does  a  child  of  the  tenements  need  to  be  more 
intelligent  than  a  child  of  wealthy  parents? 

40.  Is  it  true  that  no  two  persons  can  think  exactly 
alike  while  any  number  can  feel  alike? 


Psychological  Bases  51 

41.  Why  is  it  that  the  feeling  side  of  conscious- 
ness expresses  itself  more  quickly  than  the  cognitive 
phase  ? 

42.  What  is  the  imagining  phase  of  cognition  ? 

43.  Is  it  true  that  the  tap-root  of  selfishness  is 
weakness  of  imagination? 

44.  Why  are  we  more  moved  "by  our  neighbor's 
suffering  from  a  corn  on  his  great  toe  than  by  the  star- 
vation of  millions  in  China"? 

45.  What  is  meant  by  a  socialized  imagination? 

46.  Is  the  intolerant,  selfish  nation  the  unimagina- 
tive nation  ? 

47.  What  is  remembering? 

48.  Is  the  average  person  today  less  able  to  re- 
member than  the  average  person  three  centuries  ago? 

49.  In  what  way  do  adults  have  an  advantage  over 
children  in  being  able  to  remember  ? 

50.  Is  it  true  that  the  average  student  habitually 
begins  the  study  of  his  lesson  by  memorizing  "with 
the  expectation  of  doing  whatever  thinking  is  neces- 
sary later" ? 

51.  Is  the  examination  system  in  universities  psy- 
chologically sound? 

52.  Can  one  think  quickly  and  well  at  the  same 
time? 

53.  Explain:    To  think  is  dangerous. 

54.  What  is  reasoning? 

55.  What  is  the  highest  function  of  reasoning? 

56.  Why  do  so  few  people  develop  the  reasoning 
phase  of  consciousness  to  its  full  extent,  when  it  would 
be  so  greatly  advantageous  to  do  so? 

57.  When  do  you  act  most  rationally  ? 


52  Social  Psychology 

58.  Are  the  judgments  which  are  made  by  men 
more  impartial  than  those  made  by  women? 

59.  Is  it  more  common  for  a  person  to  base  his 
decision  upon  evidence,  or  to  seek  evidence  to  justify 
his  decision? 


(Volitional) 

60.  What  is  volition? 

61.  Give  an  original  illustration  of  the  statement: 
Thought  is  motor. 

62.  Can  you  distinguish  between  the  statements : 
(a)  Thought  is  motor;  and  (b)  Ideas  are  dynamic. 

63.  Explain:    We  learn  to  worship  through  wor- 
shipping. 

64.  What  is  the  meaning  of  learning  by  teaching? 


READINGS 


(INSTINCTIVE  REACTIONS) 

Angell,  J.  R.,  Psychology,  Ch.  XVI. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  VI. 

Colvin  and  Bagley,  Human  Behavior,  Chs.  IX,  X. 

Drever,  James,  Instinct  in  Man. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  IV. 

Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  IX. 

Hayes,  E.  C,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XIII. 

Hothouse,  L.  T.,  Mind  in  Evolution,  Ch.  IV. 

Hocking,  William  E.,  Human  Nature  and  Its  Remaking,  Part  II. 


Psychological  Bases  53 

Holmes,  A.,  Principles  of  Character  Making,  Ch.  V. 
James,  William,  Psychology,  (briefer  course),  Ch.  XXV. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Chs.  Ill,  IV. 

Genetic  Psychology,  Ch.  IV. 

Marot,  Helen,  The  Creative  Impulse  in  Industry. 

Morgan,  Lloyd,  Habit  and  Instinct. 

Parmelee,  Maurice,  The  Science  of  Human  Behavior,  Ch.  XIII. 

Tead,  Ordway,  Instincts  in  Industry. 

Wallas,  Graham,  Human  Nature  in  Politics,  Part  I,  Ch.  I. 

(HABITUAL  REACTIONS) 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Mental  Development,  Ch.  XVI. 
Holmes,  A.,  Principles  of  Character  Making,  Ch.  VI. 
James,  William,  Psychology,  (briefer  course),  Ch.  X. 

Talks  to  Teachers,  Ch.  VIII. 

Morgan,  Lloyd,  Habit  and  Instinct. 

Scott,  W.  D.,  The  Psychology  of  Advertising,  Ch.  IX. 

Increasing  Human  Efficiency  in  Business,  Ch.  XIII. 

Wallas,  Graham,  The  Great  Society,  Ch.  V. 

(CONSCIOUS  REACTIONS) 

Angell,  J.  R.,  Psychology,  Chs.  XIII,  XXII. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  VII. 

Mental  Development,  Ch.  XIII. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  IX. 

Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chs.  X,  XII. 

Hocking,  William  E.,  Human  Nature  and  Its  Remaking,  Part  III. 
Home,  H.  H.,  Psychological  Principles  of  Education,  Parts  II, 

III,  IV. 
James,    William,    Psychology,    (briefer    course),    Chs.    XVIII, 
XXVL 

Talks  to  Teachers,  Chs.  XII,  XV. 

Jastrow,  Joseph,  The  Psychology  of  Conviction,  Ch.  I. 

Knowlson,  T.  S.,  Originality,  Section  II. 

McDougall,  William,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch. 

IX. 
Miller,  I.  E.,  Psychology  of  Thinking. 


54  Social  Psychology 

Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  Essentials  of  Psychology,  Ch.  XI. 

The  Psychology  of  Reasoning. 

Royce,  Josiah,  Outlines  of  Psychology,  Chs.  VIII,  XV. 
Wallas,  Graham,  The  Great  Society,  Chs.  X-XII. 


Chapter  III. 
THE  SOCIAL  PERSONALITY 

We  now  find  ourselves  in  the  field  of  social  psy- 
chology proper.  We  are  at  once  confronted  with  liv- 
ing, interacting  personalities.  Personality  is  the  first 
and  in  certain  particulars  the  most  important  phenom- 
enon which  is  considered  by  the  social  psychologist. 
A  finely  developed  personality  is  the  essence  of  leader- 
ship ;  and  it  is  for  the  sake  of  producing  well-balanced 
and  civically-functioning  personalities  that  society 
exists. 

Personality  is  characterized  by  self-determination, 
or  initiative,  and  by  a  sense  of  public  responsibility. 
As  stated  in  Chapter  I,  personality  possesses  two 
phases — individuality  and  sociality.  Individuality  and 
sociality  are  simply  the  two  poles  of  the  same  entity — 
personality.  Sociality,  or  the  social  personality,  does 
not  exist  by  itself ;  it  is  that  side  of  one's  nature  which 
is  most  closely  related  to  the  welfare  of  others.  It  is 
that  phase  of  human  nature  which  creates  and  personi- 
fies the  finest  and  deepest  of  social  relationships. 
Sociality  enables  a  person  to  enter  into  the  problems 
of  others  and  to  embody  in  himself  the  best  qualities 
of  other  persons.  Sociality  is  the  quintessence  of  the 
welfare  of  others. 

Upon  examination,  the  social  personality  is  found 
to  be  comprised  of  (i)   the  social  instincts,   (2)  the 


56  Social  Psychology 

social  emotions  and  sentiments,  (3)  the  social  self, 
(4)  the  socially  reflected  self,  (5)  the  communicative 
self,  (6)  the  mirthful  self,  and  (7)  the  socially  de- 
pendable self.  The  first  four  of  these  topics  will  be 
presented  in  this  chapter  and  the  remaining  three  in 
the  chapter  which  follows. 

I.  The  Social  Instincts.  There  are  two  groups  of 
social  instincts — primary  and  secondary.^  The  best 
known  and  differentiated  of  the  primary  social  in- 
stincts are:  (i)  gregarious,  (2)  sex  and  parental, 
and  (3)  play.  The  impulses  of  these  primary  social 
instincts  are  closely  related.  The  gregarious  instinct 
is  perhaps  the  oldest  of  the  three.  The  sex  and  paren- 
tal instincts  are  so  closely  connected  that  they  should 
be  discussed  together.  Play  is  more  complex  than  an 
ordinary  instinct.  It  is  clearly  instinctive,  however, 
and  is  more  readily  classified  under  instincts  than  else- 
where. 

The  chief  secondary  social  instincts  are  (i)  the  in- 
quisitive, (2)  the  acquisitive,  and  (3)  the  combative. 
In  each  of  these  expressions  of  psychic  energy,  the 
instinct  develops  along  anti-social  as  well  as  social 
directions.  Despite  the  individualistic  elements  in 
these  instinctive  tendencies,  they  are  all  essential  to 
the  development  of  society. 

Then  there  are  the  distinctly  individual  instincts 
which  are  closely  related  to  the  secondary  social  in- 
stincts and  are  often  inseparable  from  them.  This  list 
includes  the  self-preservation  instinct  or  what  the 
philosopher  calls  the  "will  to  live."    With  this,  the  self- 

'The  terms,  primary  and  secondary,  are  used  here  in  the  sense 
of  first  and  second,  respectively,  in  importance. 


The  Social  Personality  57 

assertive  or  "dominating"  instinct  is  connected;  it 
expresses  itself  in  aspiring  and  striving  for  power, 
and  is  inseparable  from  the  so-called  instinct  of  work- 
manship, of  activity,  of  constructiveness.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  the  so-called  submissive  instinct. 
Without  this  tendency,  individuals  would  perish,  and 
hence,  society.  In  this  chapter  the  discussion  will  be 
confined  to  the  primary  and  secondary  social  instincts. 
In  a  later  chapter,  recogfnition  will  be  given  to  the  in- 
dividual instincts  since  they  are  fundamental  to  inven- 
tion and  leadership. 

The  gregarious  instinct  expresses  itself  in  a  satis- 
faction of  being  one  of  a  herd  or  group,  and  in  an 
uneasiness — leading  to  wild  distraction — in  being 
alone  or  separated  from  the  group.  David  Hume, 
one  of  the  first  close  observers  in  social  psychology, 
asserted  that  every  pleasure  languishes  and  every  pain 
becomes  more  cruel  when  experienced  apart  from  the 
companv  of  others.^  "Let  all  the  powers  serve  one 
man,"  declared  Hume,  and  "he  will  still  be  miserable 
till  he  be  given  at  least  one  man  to  enjoy  them  with 
him."' 

The  animal  which  becomes  separated  from  the  herd 
will  risk  its  life  in  order  to  re-join  the  group.  On  a 
holiday  rural  people  rush  to  the  places  where  crowds 
are  expected  to  congregate.  Urban  people  herd  to- 
gether in  the  already  overcrowded  districts.  Even 
mercantile  stores  which  sell  the  same  kind  of  wares 
tend  to  locate  on  the  same  street.  As  a  result,  for 
example,  every  large  city  has  its  "automobile  row." 

'A  Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  (ed.  by  L.  A..Selby-Bigge), 
Oxford,  1896,  p.  363. 
*Loc.  cit. 


58  Social  Psychology 

Prisoners  who  are  subjected  to  solitary  confinement 
suffer  so  greatly  that  penologists  now  consider  this 
form  of  punishment  unjustifiably  cruel.  The  insanity 
rate  runs  from  three  to  ten  times  higher  in  prisons 
where  solitary  punishment  is  used  than  in  other  pris- 
ons. Solitude  for  a  long  time  tends  to  break  up  and 
unbalance  the  strongest  personalities. 

The  gregarious  instinct  possesses  a  definite  survival 
value  inasmuch  as  it  keeps  individuals  in  the  presence 
of  one  another  and  furnishes  a  basis  for  co-operative 
effort.  In  the  long  process  of  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, those  individuals  survive  best  who  co-operate 
best.  Those  families  function  well  in  which  the  co- 
operative spirit  is  great.  Those  nations  are  the  most 
developed  whose  spirit  of  co-operation  is  the  most  in- 
telligent and  thorough. 

The  gregarious  instinct  underlies  all  fraternal  rela- 
tions between  individuals  and  the  establishment  and 
on-going  of  all  fraternal  organizations.  In  the  public 
realm,  the  nation-state  is  the  chief  permanent  social 
institution  in  which  the  gregarious  instinct  has  func- 
tioned. It  is  probable  that  the  gregarious  instinct  fur- 
nishes the  basis  for  all  our  social  ideals. 

Because  the  sex  and  parental  instincts  are  closely 
connected,  they  will  be  discussed  together  and  in  order. 
The  sex  instincts  make  the  race  possible.  Without 
them  mankind  would  pass  away  with  the  present  gen- 
eration. Their  power  is  tremendous  and  the  regula- 
tion of  them  constitutes  the  gravest  of  social  prob- 
lems. In  fact  the  misuse  of  the  sex  instincts  is 
known  as  the  social  evil.  Illegitimacy  and  other  forms 
r)f  vice  and  sin  follow  the  wake  of  unregulated  social 


The  Social  Personality  59 

instincts.  From  the  beginning  of  time  to  the  present 
hour,  all  tribes  and  nations  have  grappled  and  strug- 
gled with  this  Hercules  among  social  problems.  In 
the  United  States  a  far-reaching  conflict  is  in  progress 
between  the  persons  and  organizations  which  have 
subtly  commercialized  the  sex  instincts  of  the  young, 
and  the  forces  of  individual  and  public  chastity. 
There  is  a  widespread  and  appalling  use  of  hotels  and 
apartment  houses  by  "mistresses"  who  are  supported 
by  so-called  respectable  men.  Sexual  vice  always  con- 
stitutes a  standing  menace  in  the  vicinity  of  army  can- 
tonments where  sexual  prostitutes  ply  their  trade  with 
boldness. 

The  parental  instinct  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  sex 
Instincts.  It  has  produced  the  venerable  social  institu- 
tion of  the  family.  Without  parental  care,  the  off- 
spring early  begins  the  struggle  for  existence,  against 
great  odds,  and  with  little  opportunity  for  normal  de- 
velopment. With  one  parent  who  gives  a  protecting 
and  directing  care,  the  offspring  has  a  fair  chance  for 
self -development  and  for  rendering  useful  service  to 
society.  When  both  parents  intelligently  co-operate 
in  the  process  of  famlly-bullding,  the  children  are  thus 
given  the  advantage  of  the  experience  of  two  elders, 
and  are  protected  from  the  harsher  phases  of  the  strug- 
gle for  existence,  for  a  time  sufficient  to  enable  them 
to  become  mature  individuals,  and  to  learn  the  mean- 
ing of  the  fundamental  principles  of  co-operative  liv- 
ing. 

The  loss  of  the  Influence  of  two  worthy  parents  and 
of  the  Institution  of  the  family  is  so  fundamental  that 
children  who  grow  up  outside  the  family  have  few 


6o  Social  Psychology 

chances  to  become  socialized  members  of  society.  In 
studying  the  home  conditions  of  delinquents,  the  writer 
has  found  that  the  broken  or  unfit  home  of  one  type 
or  another*  is  a  leading  factor  in  the  majority  of  de- 
linquency cases.  The  loss  to  a  child  of  a  socially- 
minded  and  sympathetic  parent  is  irreparably  great, 
and  the  loss  of  two  such  parents  is  beyond  compre- 
hension. No  public  or  private  institution  is  an  ade- 
quate or  equivalent  substitute.  It  is  an  established 
principle  of  modern  philanthropy  that  the  best  alterna- 
tive for  the  child's  own  home — if  it  fails — is  a  home 
with  foster  parents  who  are  wisely  selected  and  who 
maintain  a  home  that  is  reasonably  well  suited  to  the 
temperament  and  needs  of  the  child.^ 

As  a  member  of  a  family,  the  child  learns  funda- 
mental rules  of  conduct.  He  acquires  respect  for  law. 
He  learns  rudimentary  principles  of  co-operation.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  family  is  a  social  microcosm, 
the  child  in  a  family  that  has  a  social  vision  receives 
an  excellent  start  for  constructive  participation  in  pub- 
lic life. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  parents  themselves,  the 
expression  of  the  parental  instincts  results  beneficially. 

*There  are  several  types  of  broken  or  unfit  homes,  namely : 
(i)  The  home  entered  by  death,  (2)  the  home  in  which  the 
parents  are  divorced  or  separated,  (3)  the  home  in  which  pro- 
longed poverty  or  pauperism  exists,  (4)  the  home  that  is  under- 
mined by  the  extended  sickness  of  a  wage-earner,  (5)  the  home 
characterized  by  shiftlessness  and  incapacity,  and  (6)  the  immi- 
grant home  where  the  parents  in  trying  to  adjust  themselves  to 
the  strange  American  environment  have  lost  control  of  their 
children. 

"For  the  data  in  this  connection,  see  "A  Study  of  Juvenile 
Delinquency  and  Dependency  in  Los  Angeles  County  for  the 
Year  1912,"  Jour,  of  Crim.  Law  and  Criminol.,  Sept.,  1914. 


The  Social  Personality  6i 

Parenthood  tends  to  lead  to  conduct  which  is  essen- 
tially altruistic.  The  parental  impulses  are  constantly 
coming  in  conflict  with  the  egoistic  impulses  and 
would  be  worsted  in  the  struggle  if  it  were  not  for 
strong  reinforcements  which  society  itself  has  brought 
to  their  aid.  In  order  to  protect  itself  and  to  further 
the  parental  tendencies  the  given  group — and  society — 
has  built  up  powerful  sanctions,  for  example,  the  moral 
rules  which  were  instituted  in  ancient  Hebrew  days. 
The  injunction :  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  has 
served  as  a  bulwark  to  the  parental  instincts.  Then 
there  is  the  institution  of  marriage  which  was  estab- 
lished as  a  guardian  of  the  parental  desires.  Taboos 
upon  celibacy,  upon  divorce,  upon  immoral  sex  life  are 
effective  social  agents  which  lend  support  to  the  family. 
Ancestor  worship  has  hallowed  parenthood  and  thus 
helped  to  give  China  a  long  life.  Consistent  and  per- 
sistent emphasis  upon  a  sound  family  life  has  enabled 
the  Hebrew  race  to  perpetuate  itself  and  assisted  it  to 
survive  countless  obstacles  and  innumerable  destructive 
factors.  In  summary,  it  may  be  said  that  the  sex  and 
parental  instincts  run  the  entire  gamut  of  life  from 
the  lowest  levels  to  the  planes  of  highest  social  useful- 
ness. 

The  third  primary  social  instinct  is  play.  This  hu- 
man trait  is  innate,  instinctive,  and  complicated.  It  is 
so  complex  that  it  permits  of  various  explanations  and 
of  markedly  different  classifications.  It  possesses 
such  a  socially  varied  nature  that  it  is  doubtful  whether 
it  should  be  classified,  as  is  done  here,  as  an  instinct. 
Play  often  manifests  itself  in  individual  effort.  In 
such  cases,  however,  the  individual  personifies  or  sj- 


62  Social  Psychology 

cializes  the  object  or  objects  with  which  he  plays — and 
thus  creates  a  group,  with  play  manifesting  itself  as  a 
social  phenomenon.  Even  the  kitten  that  plays  with 
a  spool  seems  to  be  treating  the  spool  as  if  it  were  a 
toy  mouse. 

Play  and  work  overlap.  Both  involve  expenditure 
of  effort.  But  play  is  expenditure  of  effort  which  is 
intrinsically  interesting,  or  the  goal  of  which  is  un- 
usually attractive.  Effort  which  in  itself  produces 
agreeable  feelings  is  play. 

The  normal  exercise  of  the  play  impulses  renews 
life.  Play  rehabilitates  and  re-creates  life.  It  offers 
relaxation  and  at  the  same  time  brings  the  individual 
to  a  balanced  attitude  toward  the  world  of  living, 
changing,  and  developing  people.  No  personality  in 
whom  the  play  spirit  dies  can  long  remain  well-bal- 
anced. The  play  attitude  is  essential  in  seeing  the 
humorous  side  of  life,  in  perceiving  the  silver  linings 
to  the  cloudy  days  of  life,  and  in  appreciating  the 
ordinary  causes  of  laughter.  The  play  instinct  must 
remain  active  throughout  life  if  one  would  keep  his 
personality  in  tune  with  changing  social  phenomena. 

As  a  member  of  a  play-group,  the  child  learns  co- 
operative lessons  of  fundamental  and  life-long  impor- 
tance. At  the  age  of  three  or  thereabouts  the  child 
begins  to  build  up  a  small,  selected,  and  changing  play- 
group of  two  to  five  members.  From  three  to  six 
years  of  age  the  child  lives  in  two  groups — parental 
and  play.  In  both,  the  gregarious  instinct  operates 
strongly.  Upon  entry  into  school  the  child's  play 
group  increases  rapidly  in  size.  It  is  the  play  instinct, 
supported   strongly  by  the   gregarious   instinct,   that 


The  Social  Personality  63 

gives  the  average  child  his  great  enjoyment  in  begin- 
ning his  school  career.  For  the  same  reason  he  begs 
to  attend  Sabbath  school. 

The  play  groups  gradually  take  on  the  character  of 
boys'  gangs  or  girls'  clubs.  Then  athletic  teams  and 
fraternal  societies  develop.  It  is  in  the  team-work 
that  the  play  group  affords  that  the  individual  learns 
some  of  his  most  valuable  social  lessons.  Where  the 
family  occasionally  fails,  the  team  work  of  a  play 
group  will  succeed  in  inculcating  a  social  principle.  It 
is  this  team  play  that  teaches  the  individual  to  obey,  to 
become  a  leader,  and  to  evaluate  himself  as  a  group- 
member  and  a  force  in  society. 

The  emphasis  today  is  being  placed  upon  eight  hours 
for  work,  eight  hours  for  sleep,  and  eight  hours  for 
leisure  of  which  one-half  is  to  be  given  over  to  amuse- 
ments and  recreation.  Although  this  formula  is  not 
generally  adopted  it  indicates  that  a  large  portion  of 
life  is  being  devoted  to  amusements.  The  pace,  stress, 
and  complexity  of  modern  urban  life  demand  that 
regular  hours  daily  be  set  aside  for  recreation.  The 
questions  arise:  Does  it  matter  how  one  plays?  and, 
Is  it  anybody's  business  how  one  spends  his  leisure 
hours?  From  the  standpoint  of  group  welfare  it  mat- 
ters decidedly  how  the  individual  plays — whether  he 
wastes  or  builds  up  his  energies.  In  the  case  of  the 
young  the  nature  of  play  means  not  only  construction 
or  destruction,  but  the  formation  of  lifelong  habits. 

In  this  age  commercial  enterprise  has  provided 
amusements  of  all  types  and  for  all  classes  and  ages 
of  individuals.  These  provisions  are  made  primarily 
to  secure  the  largest  profits,  not  to  build  up  those  per- 


64  Social  Psychology 

sons  whose  play  impulses  are  rampant.  The  kinds  of 
appeals  that  are  being  made  to  the  play  instincts  consti- 
tute a  problem  of  vast  social  moment.® 

The  secondary  social  instincts  are  characterized  by 
both  socializing  and  individualizing  elements.  Be- 
cause of  the  social  factors,  this  group  of  innate  tenden- 
cies will  be  discussed  here. 

The  inquisitive  instinct  underlies  all  inquiry,  all 
searches  after  the  new,  and  all  forms  of  prolonged 
leadership,  Inquisitiveness  is  excited  by  all  phenom- 
ena which  are  moderately  different  from  those  that 
come  within  one's  ordinary  experiences.  On  one 
hand,  events  which  are  different  from  the  usual  do  not 
attract  special  attention  at  all.  On  the  other  hand, 
phenomena  which  are  especially  different  from  any- 
thing that  is  known  arouse  fear.^  But  that  which  is 
moderately  different  at  once  arouses  the  inquisitive  in- 
stinct. 

Animals  which  have  been  led  astray  by  sounds  that 
are  very  strange  have  probably  been  decoyed  and  con- 
sequently have  sooner  or  later  lost  their  lives.  Those 
individuals,  either  animal  or  human,  which  are  never 
attracted  by  anything  that  is  new  remain  mediocre  or 
retrograde.  Those  who  are  interested  in  things  that 
are  moderately  strange  avoid  violent  destruction  and 
also  slow  decadence.  A  highly  differentiated  form  of 
the  moderately  strange  is  "signs  of  concealment  or 
stealth,"  which  immediately  arrest  attention  and  make 
a  powerful  appeal  to  inquisitiveness.     Reasonably  cur- 

•For  an  elaboration  of  this  point  the  student  is  referred  to  the 
writer's  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Ch.  V. 

'William  McDougall,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology, 
(eighth  edit.),  pp.  57  ff. 


The  Social  Personality  65 

ious  individuals  survive  best. 

Society  prefers  individuals  with  moderately  inquisi- 
tive minds.  The  person  who  is  overly  inquisitive  be- 
comes unpopular  and  loses  his  influence ;  he  who  never 
asks  questions  falls  behind  his  contemporaries  into  ob- 
scurity. He  who  attends  to  his  own  affairs  and  main- 
tains an  alert,  active  mind  regarding  social  tendencies 
lays  the  best  foundation  for  a  progressive  personality. 

Scientific  research  and  genuine  intellectual  study 
arise  definitely  from  the  curiosity  instinct.  Many  re- 
search scholars  have  testified  to  the  motivating  force 
of  curiosity.  The  statements  of  Thomas  A.  Edison 
indicate  that  the  achievements  of  the  distinguished  in- 
ventor sprang  from  an  overwhelming  desire  to  find 
satisfactory  solutions  to  problems.  Finding  answers 
to  problems  represents  the  highest  development  of  the 
inquisitive  instinct.  Finding  solutions  to  social  ques- 
tions is  the  highest  service  which  that  instinct  renders. 
Thus,  intellectual  progress  (primarily)  and  social 
progress  (secondarily)  depend  upon  the  operation  of 
the  curiosity  impulses. 

The  acquisitive  instinct  develops  early.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  traits  of  a  five-year-old  child  is  his 
propensity  for  making  collections  of  articles.  Child- 
hood and  adolescence  abound  with  expressions  of  the 
desire  to  make  collections — of  stamps,  butterflies,  dolls, 
marbles,  bird  eggs.  This  propensity  often  continues 
throughout  life.  To  it  there  may  be  traced  some  of 
the  world's  finest  libraries  and  art  galleries. 

The  instinct  to  acquire  is  fundamental  to  all  acqui- 
sitions of  land  and  other  forms  of  material  wealth.  So 
strong  and  persistent  is  it  that  men  continue  to  accu- 


66  Social  Psychology 

mulate  riches  long  after  they  have  acquired  enough 
property  for  the  needs  of  themselves  and  of  their 
immediate  descendants. 

Modern  civilization  owes  its  rise  in  part  to  private 
accumulations  of  wealth.  It  is  reserve  wealth  which 
makes  leisure  from  manual  labor  possible;  it  is  this 
leisure  which  has  given  some  individuals  opportunities 
to  make  socially  beneficial  inventions.  If  all  persons 
had  to  spend  all  their  working  time  in  satisfying  the 
physical  needs  of  life,  there  would  be  little  leeway  for 
social  advance. 

The  desire  to  acquire  property,  especially  land,  is 
characteristic  not  only  of  the  individual  but  of  the 
group.  Every  strong  nation  has  manifested  the  de- 
sire to  acquire  territory — note  the  territorial  expan- 
sion of  the  United  States  since  1789.  Some  nations 
have  spent  themselves  in  their  desire  for  more  terri- 
tory. Many  of  the  cruel  wars  that  have  been  waged 
by  monarchial  governments  have  arisen  from  the  na- 
tional weakness  for  more  territory.  When  monarch- 
ial forms  of  government  pass  away,  it  is  probable  that 
territorial  wars  will  become  unpopular.  An  interna- 
tional institution  such  as  a  League  of  Nations  will 
justify  its  existence  if  it  can  succeed  in  stifling  national 
desires  for  territorial  aggrandisement. 

The  regulation  of  the  acquisition  instinct  when  it 
has  succeeded  in  building  up  a  strongly  intrenched 
system  of  private  property  is  exceedingly  difficult.  The 
acquisitive  instinct  knows  no  bounds.  A  relatively 
few  individuals  or  coteries  may  secure  control  of  a 
major  portion  of  the  wealth  within  a  nation  and  use  it 
arbitrarily.       Consequently,     socialism,     syndicalism, 


The  Social  Personality  67 

Bolshevism  gain  vast  recruits  from  the  propertyless 
classes.  The  fact  that  English  lands  have  become  con- 
centrated in  large  estates  that  are  owned  by  a  very 
small  proportion  of  the  population  of  England,  and 
that  the  farmers  have  become  a  class  of  tenants®  has 
expedited  the  rise  of  Bolshevistic  feelings,  which  be- 
gan in  a  startling  way  to  be  expressed  after  the  signing 
of  the  armistice  in  November,  19 18. 

To  solve  the  problem,  two  methods  are  proposed. 
Without  entering  into  a  meticulous  discussion  it  may 
be  said  that  on  one  side  are  the  people  who  believe 
that  the  acquisitive  desires  should  be  blocked  and 
crushed  out  and  that  the  government  should  own  all 
rent-producing  land  and  all  interest-producing  capital. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  question  there  are  the  persons 
who  hold  that  the  acquisitive  instinct  is  too  deep-seated 
to  be  eliminated  from  human  nature ;  that  it  would  not 
be  wise  to  stamp  out  the  instinct,  even  if  it  were  possi- 
ble; and  that  this  basic  set  of  impulses  should  be 
allowed  to  operate,  but  trained  to  an  expression  in 
harmony  with  public  welfare. 

The  acquisitive  instinct,  however,  has  acquired  such 
force  that  at  times  it  defies  governmental  regulation. 
The  undemocratic  attitude  and  the  disrespect  for  law 
of  vast  corporate  or  inherited  bodies  of  wealth  find 
themselves  today  matched  by  the  undemocratic  and 
legally  disrespectful  program  of  Bolshevism.  If  civil- 
ization is  going  to  survive  the  world-wide  revolution- 
ary and  terrorist  tendencies  that  are  abroad,  there  must 
be  a  renaissance  of  respect  for  law  and  order  on  the 
part  of  everyone,  beginning  with  the  most  powerful 

*Cf.,  William  McDougall,  op.  cit.,  p.  322. 


68  Social  Psychology 

and  ending  with  those  who  possess  least.  In  other 
words  the  purely  selfish  aspects  of  the  acquisitive  in- 
stinct— individually  and  nationally — must  be  elimi- 
nated. The  acquisitive,  or  possessive,  instinct  has 
made  civilization  possible.  It  must  be  socialized,  else 
it  will  turn  upon  its  child  and  destroy  it. 

Another  secondary  social  instinct  is  the  combative. 
It  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  spectacular  emotion 
of  anger.  In  a  primitive  group  the  fighting  leaders 
survived ;  the  others  perished.  In  early  human  society 
the  fighting  tribes  survived  longest  and  succeeded  best ; 
the  others  suffered  extinction.  Thus,  throughout  a 
long  period  of  time — probably  extending  to  the  pres- 
ent— the  combative  instinct  has  been  at  a  high  survival 
premium.     It  is  deeply  ingrained  in  human  nature. 

The  combative  instinct,  and  its  accompanying  emo- 
tion of  anger,  is  excited  whenever  any  obstacle  blocks 
the  operation  of  the  other  instinctive  tendencies,  of  the 
habitual  activities,  or  of  the  newly  aroused  and  cur- 
rently conscious  desires.  The  fighting  instinct*  and 
its  emotion  energizes  the  individual,  concentrates  his 
energies,  and  drives  him  ahead  over  obstacles.  The 
fighting  impulses  secure  readjustments,  both  individual 
and  social.  In  its  crudest  forms  combativeness  shows 
itself  in  the  snarl  and  rush  of  the  dog,  in  the  clenched 
and  striking  fists  of  the  boy,  in  the  lynching  atroci- 
ties of  the  mob,  in  the  brutalities  which  are  committed 
in  the  name  of  organized  warfare. 

The  fighting  instinct  has  been  undergoing  modifica- 
tions.    Its  earliest  expression  was  in  the  form  of  de- 

*Thc  combative  instinct,  the  fighting  instinct,  and  the  pugna- 
cious instinct  are  terms  which  are  used  synonymously  in  this 
chapter. 


The  Social  Personality  69 

struction.  If  a  plant  is  obnoxious,  destroy  it.  If  an 
animal  is  dangerous,  kill  it.  If  a  man  gets  in  your 
way,  knock  him  down,  stab  him,  shoot  him.  If  a  tribe 
wants  your  hunting  grounds,  annihilate  that  tribe. 
Then  revenge  developed  out  of  the  fighting  instinct. 
If  you  cannot  destroy  at  once  the  thing,  person,  or 
tribe  that  is  in  your  way,  bide  your  time,  foster  the 
desire  to  destroy,  and  at  the  opportune  moment  rise 
up  and  slay.  If  you  cannot  destroy  the  person  who 
has  wronged  you,  then  kill  an  innocent  relative — thus 
originated  the  blood  feud. 

But  if  you  cannot  exterminate,  then  administer 
heavy  physical  and  mental  punishment.  Torture  has 
been  considered  a  satisfactory  form  of  punishment, 
and  as  a  result,  jails  and  prisons  have  turned  back  their 
inmates  to  society  in  a  more  anti-social  state  of  mind 
than  when  the  offenders  were  committed  to  punish- 
ment. The  new  standard  is  to  allow  the  rigorous  dis- 
cipline of  work  to  serve  as  punishment  and  to  set  in 
motion  constructive  processes  of  reform.  A  new  cri- 
terion involving  a  high  degree  of  self-control  for  deal- 
ing with  anger  was  set  thousands  of  years  ago  by  the 
ethical  seer  who  said :  "A  soft  answer  turneth  away 
wrath." 

Although  a  heritage  from  the  days  of  fang  and 
claw,  the  fighting  tendencies,  in  modified  forms,  are 
an  essential  factor  in  individual  and  social  progress. 
In  the  early  days  of  human  society  they  were  com- 
monly expressed  in  the  physical  combat  between  indi- 
viduals. In  the  modern  civilized  nation-state  individ- 
uals as  a  rule  do  not  resort  to  physical  clash  in  order 
to  settle  disputes,  but  turn  to  discussion  and  concilia- 


70  Social  Psychology 

tion  or  to  the  organized  courts.  Their  individual 
fighting  energies  are  thus  not  used  to  destroy  their 
fellow  beings  but  are  diverted  into  intellectual  contests. 

The  combative  instinct  is  undergoing  intrinsic 
changes.  Its  very  nature  is  being  transformed  by  the 
operation  of  intellectual  factors,  such  as  discussion  and 
education.  It  may  be  entirely  altered  through  the  con- 
tinued operation  of  social  organizations,  such  as  courts 
of  justice.  Its  course  may  be  completely  changed 
through  the  expression  of  the  highest  spiritual  virtues, 
such  as  love. 

The  struggle  for  existence  in  the  biological  world 
which  takes  place  upon  the  plane  of  physical  strength 
has  its  counterpart  among  human  beings  in  militarism 
and  in  commercialism  of  the  highly  competitive,  de- 
structive types.  It  is  increasingly  evident  that  these 
struggles  will  be  completely  changed  in  nature  through 
the  quiet,  creative,  pervasive  influence  of  love  and 
other  spiritual  forces.  As  a  class  the  "fittest"  to  sur- 
vive are  undergoing  an  evolution  from  the  lowest  types 
of  brute  strength  to  shrewd  forms  of  mental  efficiency 
and  strength,  and  then  to  socialized  personalities  moti- 
vated by  the  principle  of  love. 

A  recent  evidence  of  the  belief  that  vital  modifica- 
tions of  the  fighting  instinct  are  taking  place  is  found 
in  a  book  entitled,  Die  Biologie  dcs  Krieges  by  Profes- 
sor G.  F.  Nicolai.  The  volume  was  published  in  1917 
and  translated  into  English  in  1918.^"  This  daring 
German  writer,  who  was  imprisoned  during  the  War 
for  his  views  and  who  was  rescued  from  prison  by 
aeroplane,  holds  that  the  hitherto  ineradicable  fighting 

^"The  Biology  of  War,  Century  Co. 


The  Social  Personality  71 

instinct  is  a  survival  of  tendencies  which  at  one  time 
were  useful  but  which  are  now  positively  dangerous. 
The  need  for  the  transformation  of  this  instinct  is  im- 
perative. One  species  of  animals  after  another  has 
died  out  before  it  could  change  its  instinctive  ways. 
Hence,  the  question  is  pertinent :  Will  mankind  die 
out  because  it  can  not  change  the  fighting  instinct? 
Will  mankind  through  the  pugnacious  use  of  marvel- 
ous scientific  inventions  literally  kill  itself  off?  Or 
can  it  control  the  fighting  energies  of  individuals  and 
nations  and  convert  them  into  constructive  forces  ? 

The  combative  instinct  is  the  chief  psychic  element 
in  business  competition  and  political  campaigning.  It 
is  the  dynamo  which  engenders  tremendous  forces  in 
intellectual  realms.  It  contributes  to  the  pleasure  of 
the  participant  in  and  the  spectator  of  competitive 
games.  It  leads  to  contests  between  ideals  and  pro- 
grams and  is  a  primary  factor  in  progress.  Additional 
phases  of  the  combative  impulses  will  be  presented  in 
a  subsequent  chapter  on  "Group  Conflicts." 

When  war  becomes  historic,  there  will  still  be  a 
far-reaching  need  for  the  fighting  spirit.  Then  na- 
tions and  individuals  will  still  need  to  fight  social  evils 
and  sins.  They  will  be  constrained  to  destroy,  not 
the  best  people  of  competitive,  sovereign  groups,  but 
the  evil  in  all  peoples,  under  the  supervision  of  a  plan- 
etary order.  The  struggles  against  social  evils  will 
always  demand,  as  far  as  one  can  now  see,  the  exercise 
of  the  combative  instinct  in  a  socialized  form.  The 
combative  forces  are  not  to  be  eliminated  but  to  be 
rationally  directed,  modified,  and  made  subservient  to 
world  welfare. 


72  Social  Psychology 

PROBLEMS 

1.  Does  the  gregarious  instinct  exist  in  the  her- 
mit? 

2.  Give  an  original  illustration  of  the  operation  of 
the  gregarious  instinct. 

3.  Why  do  the  working  classes  on  holidays  rush 
to  the  places  where  the  crowds  are? 

4.  Why  is  the  country  considered  dull  by  so  many 
people  ? 

5.  Why  do  people  become  "chummy"  when  sit- 
ting around  the  hearth  fire  ? 

6.  Why  does  a  prisoner  take  a  special  interest  in 
a  flower? 

7.  Why  do  people  talk  aloud  to  themselves? 

8.  Explain :    It  is  lonesome  to  be  a  college  presi- 
dent. 

9.  Why  should  one  alternate  between  friendship 
and  solitude? 

10.  What  are  the  leading  forces  which  are  oppos- 
ing the  parental  impulses? 

11.  Why  does  a  child  play? 

12.  Why  does  an  adult  go  to  a  prize-fight? 

13.  Why  is  it  work  for  a  mason  to  pile  up  brick 
and  play  for  a  small  boy  to  pile  up  blocks? 

14.  Why  is  work  hard  and  play  easy  to  a  child 
even  when  the  latter  requires  the  expenditure  of  more 
energy  ? 

15.  Why  is  it  play  to  a  boy  to  clear  brush  from  a 
lot  for  a  baseball  diamond  and  work  to  clear  the  same 
lot  at  his  parent's  command? 

16.  What  is  the  chief  social  value  in  play? 


The  Social  Personality  73 

17.  What  is  curiosity? 

18.  Are  women  more  curious  than  men? 

19.  What  is  the  relation  between  curiosity  and 
science  ? 

20.  What  is  the  chief  value  of  the  acquisitive  in- 
stinct ? 

21.  What  was  the  earliest  collection  of  articles  that 
you  made,  as  far  as  you  can  recall  ? 

22.  Beyond  what  limits  is  it  wrong  to  indulge  the 
acquisitive  instinct? 

23.  What  instinct  impels  a  person  to  run  to  see  a 
fight? 

24.  Is  it  necessary  to  get  angry  in  order  to  fight 
well? 

25.  What  is  righteous  indignation? 

26.  What  has  rendered  bodily  combat  unnecessary 
in  order  to  settle  disputes? 

27.  Is  anger  a  good  guide  to  action? 

28.  Will  the  fighting  instinct  die  out? 


READINGS 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  IX. 
Groos,  K.,  The  Play  of  Animals. 

The  Play  of  Man. 

Howerth,  I.  W.,  "The  Great  War  and  the  Instinct  of  the  Herd," 

Intern.  Jour,  of  Ethics,  XXIX:  174-87. 
Kirkpatrick,    E.   A.,   Fundamentals   of   Child  Study,   Chs.   VII, 

IX-XI. 
Kropotkin,  P.,  Mutual  Aid;  a  Factor  in  Evolution. 
McDougall,    William,    An    Introduction    to    Social   Psychology, 

Sect.  II. 
Patrick,  G.  T.  W.,  The  Psychology  of  Relaxation,  Chs.  II,  IV. 


74  Social  Psychology 

Ribot,  Th.,  The  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  Part  II,  Ch.  VI. 
Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology,  Ch.  V. 
Thomas,  W.  I.,  "The  Gaming  Instinct,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol., 

VI :  650-63. 
Trotter,  W.,  The  Instincts  of  the  Herd  in  Peace  and  War,  pp. 

23-66,  101-213. 
Veblen,  Thorstein,  The  Instinct  of  Workmanship. 


Chapter  IV. 

THE  SOCIAL  PERSONALITY 

(Continued) 

2.  The  Social  Emotions  and  Sentiments.  An 
emotion  is  a  complex  of  feelings.  It  arises  when  in- 
stinctive, habitual,  or  conscious  desires  are  blocked. 
Whenever  an  obstacle  appears  in  the  path  of  a  human 
interest  a  mental  disturbance  ensues,  accompanied  by 
emotional  manifestations.  In  a  way,  the  emotion  is 
the  affective  phase  of  the  disturbance.  Whenever  a 
conflict  in  the  mind  occurs,  the  emotions  arise;  but 
when  no  conflict  exists  ennui  is  likely  to  develop. 
Emotions  and  ennui  are  the  opposite  ends  of  the  pole 
of  interest.  In  other  words,  emotions  heighten  and 
give  color  to  the  obstacles  of  life. 

There  are  three  main  groups  of  emotions,  those  of 
anger,  of  sorrow,  or  joy.  In  the  case  of  anger,  funda- 
mental desires  have  been  held  up.  The  individual  is 
energized  to  overcome  the  obstruction.  The  rise  of 
sorrow  indicates  that  one  has  in  some  particular  act- 
ually loved  and  lost.  He  has  had  definitely  to  give  up 
pleasant  hopes  or  valued  possessions.  Joy  marks  the 
more  or  less  sudden  realization  of  some  important  de- 
sire. 

As  enlargements  of  the  feeling  side  of  life,  the  emo- 
tions often  run  to  extremes  and  express  themselves  in 
wild,  blind  exhibitions  of  discharged  energy,  or  in  a 


yd  Social  Psychology 

temporary  but  complete  paralysis  of  the  volitional  na- 
ture. For  example,  the  emotion  of  anger  results  in 
concentrated  but  frequently  irrational  forms  of  activ- 
ity. On  the  other  hand,  the  emotion  of  sorrow — of 
subjection  and  dejection — which  follows  defeat  and 
losses  tends  to  produce  temporary  impotence. 

Perhaps  the  most  elemental  of  all  emotions  and  the 
one  which  is  more  evenly  spread  than  any  other  is  sym- 
pathy. Certainly  the  chief  social  emotion  is  sympa- 
thy. It  is  probably  fundamental  to  all  three  types 
that  are  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs. 

As  the  word  implies,  sympathy  means  "feeling  with" 
others.  An  example  of  the  expression  of  an  elemental 
form  of  sympathetic  emotion  is  the  immediate  and 
appropriate  response  of  the  brood  of  chickens  to  the 
warning  cry  of  the  mother  hen.  Because  of  sympa- 
thetic emotion,  the  vigorous  crying  of  a  baby  is  fol- 
lowed by  simultaneous  wailing  on  the  part  of  infants 
near  by,  even  though  they  do  not  have  the  slightest 
conception  of  the  cause  of  the  crying  of  the  first  child. 
For  the  same  reason  a  scream  of  terror  on  the  part 
of  an  adult  evokes  a  similar  pang  on  the  part  of  by- 
standers, although  the  latter  do  not  know  the  cause 
of  the  scream. 

The  characteristic  of  "feeling  with"  others  varies  in 
degree  with  individuals.  In  an  extreme  form  it  often 
decreases  personal  efficiency.  It  is  a  misfortune,  for 
example,  for  a  surgeon  to  be  over-sympathetic.  At 
the  other  extreme  a  small  measure  of  sympathy  per- 
mits one's  egoistic,  selfish  impulses  to  run  riot.  Sym- 
pathy enables  the  individual  to  understand  the  expe- 
riences, attitudes,  and  actions  of  other  people. 


The  Social  Personality  'j'^ 

When  an  important  issue  is  to  be  settled,  the  party 
which  is  successful  in  enlisting  the  sympathies  of  the 
public  possesses  a  strong  advantage.  The  sympathies 
often  manifest  erratic  choices.  Because  they — like  the 
feelings — are  not  closely  allied  to  the  reasoning  side 
of  consciousness,  they  are  likely  to  be  expressed  in 
strange,  irrational,  and  at  times  in  unreliable  forms. 
Sympathy  does  not  always  connote  dependable  con- 
duct. Perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  social  character- 
istic of  sympathy  is  its  tendency  to  be  associated  with 
the  conservative  elements  in  a  conflict  or  struggle.  It 
is  commonly  allied  with  the  old,  the  tried,  and  the  true. 
It  is  a  gigantic  stabilizing  force.  Oftentimes  it  adds 
too  much  stability.  Occasionally  it  is  so  closely  at- 
tached to  outworn  habits  and  customs  that  it  acts  as  a 
stumbling-block  to  progress.  Nevertheless  every  new 
reform  measure  tries  to  win  the  permanent  sympathies 
of  the  people.  If  it  succeeds  in  this  enterprise,  all  will 
be  well  for  a  time. 

Sympathy  possesses  far-reaching  connections.  For 
example,  it  functions  extensively  in  connection  with 
the  parental  impulses.  Even  the  most  primitive  forms 
of  love  foster  it.  Sympathy  is  a  strong  ally  of  the 
gregarious  instinct  in  holding  together  the  members 
of  a  group.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  aptly  de- 
scribed as  a  social  cement. 

A  sentiment  is  a  complex  of  emotional  reactions 
which  appears  in  organized  ways.  Sentiments  are  or- 
ganized emotions  with  social  values.  For  example, 
admiration  involves  the  person  who  admires  and  the 
one  who  is  admired ;  it  implies  the  expression  of  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  wonder,  of  humility,  and  of  generosity 


78  Social  Psychology 

toward  the  one  for  whom  admiration  is  felt.  A  suc- 
cessful leader  must  gain  the  permanent  admiration  of 
his  followers.  Admiration  plus  fear  constitutes  awe; 
and  awe  with  the  addition  of  gratitude  leads  to  rever- 
ence— the  highest  religious  sentiment.^ 

Respect  is  closely  allied  to  admiration;  it  is  more 
cognitive  and  less  affective,  and  in  general,  more  per- 
manent than  admiration.  Respect  is  perhaps  the  most 
intellectualized  sentiment.  Self-respect  implies  that 
the  individual  has  given  thought  to  his  actions  and 
has  justified  them.  Respect  for  another  implies  that 
one  has  analyzed  the  activities  of  the  other  person  and 
has  found  them  satisfactory,  or  in  harmony  with  his 
own  ideals  or  standards.  I  do  not  believe  with  Dr. 
McDougall^  that  we  always  respect  those  who  respect 
themselves,  and  that  our  respect  for  another  person  is 
always  a  sympathetic  reflection  of  his  self-respect.  It 
is  true  that  others  must  respect  themselves  before  we 
will  respect  them,  but  if  the  moral  standards  of  others 
are  below  our  own  we  will  not  grant  them  complete 
respect. 

Pity  is  a  mild  sentiment  which  arises  out  of  sympa- 
thy for  other  persons  but  does  not  result  in  positive 
sacrifice  for  others.  The  person  who  pities  usually 
feels  himself  definitely  separated  by  some  barrier  from 
the  one  who  is  pitied.  Pity  is  a  developed  form  of 
sympathy  which  is  held  in  check  by  a  feeling  of  supe- 
riority, of  inability  to  render  aid,  or  of  the  impractica- 
bility of  giving  aid.  The  results  of  pity  are  rarely 
positive. 

'C/.    William  McDougall,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychol- 
ogy, (eighth  edit.),  p.  132  ff. 
'Ibid.,  p.  161. 


The  Social  Personality  79 

Shame  is  experienced  when  the  individual  finds  him- 
self compared  unfavorably  with  the  standards  of  his 
friends,  or  when  he  falls  below  the  standards  which 
others  expect  of  him.  To  protect  himself  from  expe- 
riencing shame,  the  individual  will  often  submit  him- 
self unflinchingly  to  severe  discipline.  The  group,  or 
the  leaders,  will  often  capitalize  an  individual's  aver- 
sion to  shame  in  order  to  secure  his  otherwise  unwill- 
ing support  of  a  worthy  or  unworthy  cause.  When- 
ever the  socially  reflected  self  falls  below  par,  shame 
arises,  and  exists  until  the  social  mirror  self  recovers 
its  prestige. 

Jealousy,  revenge,  and  hate  are  related  sentiments. 
Jealousy  arises  when  the  ego  is  strongly  developed 
and  generally  indicates  a  self -centered  view  of  life. 
At  its  heart  there  is  an  exaggerated  self -feeling.  As 
a  rule,  jealousy  narrows  and  contracts  the  individual ; 
it  hinders  the  growth  of  personality.  In  the  long  run, 
the  individual  is  justified  only  in  being  jealous  of  his 
character  and  reputation.  In  a  secondary  and  vital 
sense,  the  individual  should  be  jealous  of  the  character 
and  good  name  of  other  persons  and  of  worthy  insti- 
tutions. 

Revenge  is  an  aggressive  sentiment  which  springs 
up  when  the  individual  feels  that  he  or  someone  in 
whom  he  is  interested  has  been  grievously  injured.  It 
flares  high  and  may  die  down  quickly.  It  is  likely  to 
be  temporary  in  form  and  to  disappear  as  soon  as  the 
rule  of  an  eye  for  an  eye  has  been  administered.  It 
may  be  generalized,  however,  by  the  group  and  assume 
deep-seated  and  long  term  proportions,  as  in  the  case 
of  blood  feuds.     The  development  of  courts  of  justice 


8o  Social  Psychology 

has  met  the  general  need  which  is  served  by  vengeance ; 
consequently,  the  sentiment  has  been  losing  a  great 
deal  of  its  force.  It  still  bursts  into  disgraceful  pro- 
portions— in  the  case  of  lynchings — and  occupies  a 
concealed  place  in  many  lives. 

Hate  is  a  long-lived,  ingrained  sentiment  that  func- 
tions against  the  progress  of  constructive  tendencies,  or 
even  of  persons  and  races  irrespective  of  social  values. 
Hate  is  an  ominous  element  in  race  prejudice.  Its 
value  appears  when  it  is  directed  not  against  people 
as  such,  but  against  sin,  vice,  and  crime. 

Love  is  a  conserving,  stabilizing  and  yet  tumultuous 
sentiment  of  unmeasured  power.  In  its  most  primi- 
tive, elemental  expressions  it  may  be  more  or  less 
purely  sexual  and  may  lead  to  sexual  vice  and  impur- 
ity and  to  illegitimacy.  A  higher  form  is  that  known 
as  romantic  love,  the  subject  of  which  is  impelled  to 
extensive  undertakings  and  sacrifices  in  behalf  of  the 
one  who  is  loved. ^  The  primitive  nature  of  romantic 
love  is  shown  in  its  fickleness.  It  may  lead,  however, 
to  conjugal  love  which  possesses  qualities  of  endur- 
ance. The  strength  of  conjugal  love  develops  out  of 
the  fact  that  husbands  and  wives  experience  great  joys 
and  sorrows  together.  It  is  particularly  in  the  suffer- 
ing together  of  husband  and  wife  that  emotional  ro- 
mantic love  becomes  transformed  into  the  strong,  deep, 
and  abiding  currents  of  conjugal  love.  Maternal  love 
is  the  keenest,  deepest,  and  most  concentrated  form  of 
the  love  of  one  person  for  another.  The  love  of  a 
mother  for  her  child  is  the  most  enduring  type  of  love ; 
it  persists  despite  continued  gross  neglect  and  even  of 

*Cf.    L.  F.  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  pp.  277  ff- 


The  Social  Personality  8i 

utterly  despicable  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  son  or 
daughter.  Paternal  love  is  far  less  intense  and  less 
enduring  than  maternal  love;  it  is  more  akin  to  love 
of  brother  for  brother.  Filial  love  is  often  strongly 
expressed  in  childhood  and  adolescence  and  then  it 
may  weaken.  It  may  be  revived  in  the  later  years  of 
life  and  assume  its  earlier  strength  and  be  expressed  in 
ways  which  gladden  parental  hearts.  Consanguineal 
love  ranges  from  the  close  attachment  that  is  charac- 
teristic of  maternal  love  to  a  simple  form  of  nominal 
friendship.  Out  of  all  these  forms  of  love  the  family 
as  a  social  institution  is  builded. 

A  further  observation  should  be  made  concerning 
consanguineal  love,  which  frequently  takes  on  idealistic 
forms.  It  often  manifests  itself  in  sane  types  of 
friendship.  It  may  extend  itself  beyond  blood  rela- 
tionships. Two  unrelated  persons  may  become  "like 
brothers."  Consanguineal  love  leads  to  the  most  de- 
pendable types  of  loyalty.  In  its  highest  sense  it  gives 
content  to  a  doctrine  of  the  brotherhood  of  man.  In 
the  same  way  parental  love  has  been  given  a  religious 
connotation  of  God's  love  for  man,  and  filial  love  has 
been  transcribed  into  man's  love  for  God. 

3.  The  Growth  of  the  Social  Self.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  self  is  surprisingly  social.  The  conscious- 
ness of  self  arises  when  the  individual  is  set  off  or 
sets  himself  off  from  other  selves.  It  was  this  pro- 
cess which  was  first  analyzed  in  an  able  way  by  J. 
Mark  Baldwin.* 

^Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  I ;  also  cf.  C.  H. 
Coolcy,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Chs.  I,  V,  VI. 


82  Social  Psychology 

To  the  infant  everything  is  first  of  all  objective. 
Even  his  fingers  and  toes  seem  to  him  to  belong  to  an 
outside  world.  But  when  these  fingers  or  toes  are 
pinched  or  burned,  they  are  given  a  self  valuation  by 
the  owner.  Through  his  experiences — chiefly  of  suf- 
fering— the  child  learns  to  distinguish  between  the  ego 
and  the  alter  and  to  set  up  a  self -world  in  apposition 
to  an  others-world. 

The  ego  and  the  alter  are  not  separate  entities  but 
opposite  ends  of  the  same  pole  of  growth,  i.  e.,  of  per- 
sonality. With  the  growth  of  personality  there  al- 
ways arises  this  bi-polarism.  From  one  extremity  of 
the  bi-polar  being  there  emanates  a  recognition  of  the 
ways  in  which  oneself  is  different  from  other  selves — 
individuality.  From  the  other  pole  there  springs  a 
consciousness  of  the  particulars  in  which  one  possesses 
kindred  interests  with  others — sociality.  The  inter- 
action between  the  ego  and  the  alter  results  in  the 
growth  of  both.  The  process  is  one,  and  in  the  deep- 
est sense  the  ego  and  the  alter  evolve  constructively  or 
destructively  together. 

The  social  consciousness  of  the  child  arises  simul- 
taneously with  the  development  of  his  self  conscious- 
ness. If  it  were  not  for  the  presence,  activities,  and 
stimulations  of  others,  his  consciousness  of  self  would 
remain  undeveloped.  The  stimuli  which  call  forth 
self  consciousness  are  caused  by  the  contacts  of  the  in- 
dividual with  other  persons.  The  degree  to  which  self 
consciousness  is  developed  depends  upon  the  original 
store  of  self-assertive  impulses  and  instincts  and  upon 
the  nature  of  the  social  environment.  If  the  original 
nature  of  the  child  bristles  with  aggressiveness,  the 


The  Social  Personality  83 

impingement  of  the  social  environment  will  produce 
qualities  of  leadership  in  the  individual,  or  may  un- 
fortunately lead  to  an  exaggerated  self-assertion  and 
to  continual  exhibitions  of  contra-suggestion,  of  over- 
bearing attitudes,  and  of  a  pugnacious  disposition. 

At  the  time  that  the  child  is  learning  the  meaning  of 
life  through  his  experiences,  he  is  simultaneously  read- 
ing those  meanings  into  the  activities  of  life.  He  pro- 
jects himself  and  his  experiences  into  the  world  of  life 
about  him — this  is  the  projective  phase  of  the  self. 
The  projection  usually  takes  place  along  horizontal 
lines.  The  individual  throws  himself  out  along  his 
occupational  or  friendship  levels.  In  this  way  there  is 
a  marked  tendency  toward  the  growth  of  horizontal 
selves.^ 

To  the  growing  personality  every  new  phenomenon 
of  life  is  first  objective  and  almost  meaningless,  then 
through  experience  life  becomes  subjective  and  full  of 
significance,  and  finally  projective  and  social.^  The 
process  is  one  of  social  self -development.  It  is  in  this 
fashion  that  one  learns — throughout  life.  As  long  as 
phenomena  are  purely  subjective  to  an  adult,  he  can 
hardly  comprehend  them.  Through  experiencing 
them,  they  become  subjective,  and  highly  so,  if  that 
experience  involves  suffering.  Then,  and  then  only, 
can  one  truly  project  his  personality  helpfully  into  the 
lives  of  others,  then  can  one  truly  sympathize,  then  can 
one  feel  "the  pulse  of  mankind." 

'C/.  the  discussion  of  the  Hnear  self,  flat  self,  vein  self,  star 
self  by  E.  A.  Ross,  Amer.  Jour,  of  Social.,  XXIV:  668  ff. 

*Cf.  the  discussion  of  the  social  self  by  C.  H.  Cooley,  Social 
Organisation,  Chs.  I,  II,  and  J.  M.  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations,  Ch.  I. 


84  Social  Psychology 

4.  The  Socially  Reflected  Self.  Every  person  is 
surrounded  by  social  mirrors.  A  friend  or  an  enemy 
is  a  social  mirror.  The  reflection  of  oneself  which  he 
sees  in  the  minds  of  others  is  his  socially  reflected  self. 
The  nature  of  the  reflection  is  rarely  true;  it  varies 
with  the  points  of  view  of  the  different  human  reflec- 
tors. The  conduct  of  every  person,  young  and  old, 
is  continually  conditioned  by  the  presence  and  opinions 
of  other  persons,  and  especially  by  the  judgments  or 
supposed  judgments  of  friends.  At  every  turn  of  life, 
the  choices  and  actions  of  a  person  are  partially  deter- 
mined by  the  images  of  himself  which  he  sees  reflected 
in  the  minds  of  his  friends,  that  is,  by  his  socially  re- 
flected self. 

The  strenuous  struggles  for  medals,  honors,  posi- 
tions are  often  due  to  the  desire  to  satisfy  the  socially 
reflected  self.  A  military  officer  reports  that  a  grave 
weakness  of  the  army  and  navy  is  the  powerful  desire 
for  promotion.  Promotion  is  the  coveted  honor,  the 
topic  of  open  and  secret  conversations,  the  measure  of 
success.  To  win  a  promotion  means  to  receive  the 
admiring  glances  of  friends  and  the  jealous  appraisals 
of  enemies.  The  socially  reflected  self  is  likely  to  be- 
come unduly  distorted  and  to  give  one  a  dangerously 
inflated  estimate  of  himself. 

At  first  many  a  recruit  has  cared  nothing  for  his 
regiment.  After  a  few  weeks  of  training  he  has 
learned  to  value  the  opinions  of  himself  which  are  held 
by  his  comrades.  Within  a  few  months  he  becomes 
not  only  willing  but  anxious  to  hazard  his  life  for  his 
regiment.  At  first  the  reflections  of  himself  that  he 
saw  in  the  eyes  of  his  fellow  "rookies"  he  scorned; 


The  Social  Personality  85 

but  in  a  relatively  short  time  he  came  to  value  these 
reflections  above  nearly  all  things  else. 

"Watch  the  change  as  the  column,  marching  at 
route  step,  swings  into  some  small  French  town  where 
children  and  an  old  woman  or  two  observe  the  pass- 
ing army,"  says  an  officer  of  a  colored  regiment. 
"Every  man  swings  into  step,  shoulders  are  thrown 
back,  and  extra  distances  between  ranks  close  auto- 
matically. Some  one  is  watching  them."  Among 
these  soldiers  there  was  one  "who  stowed  somewhere 
about  him  for  these  occasions  a  battered  silk  hat.  We 
let  him  wear  it — in  small  towns!  The  inhabitants 
stared  at  him  and  laughed.  He  was  happy  and  made 
the  whole  company  happy." 

College  athletes  explain  that  the  reflections  of  them- 
selves in  the  eyes  of  the  spectator-crowd  upon  the 
bleachers  is  one  of  the  most  impelling  factors  in  their 
achievements.  To  be  elected  to  an  honor  society 
stimulates  many  pupils,  not  because  of  the  actual  bene- 
fit to  be  derived  from  the  competitive  processes  but 
on  account  of  the  complimentary  remarks  and  the 
standing  which  the  coveted  honor  gives,  that  is  to  say, 
because  of  the  dazzling  reflections  of  oneself  which 
the  social  mirrors  present. 

A  young  man  who  does  not  approve  of  missions 
attends  a  church  service  in  order  to  please  a  young 
lady  who  is  interested  in  missionary  enterprises.  An 
offering  for  missions  is  to  be  taken.  The  first  im- 
pulse of  the  young  man  is  not  to  give.  Then  he 
thinks  of  the  impression  that  his  stingy  self  would 
make  upon  the  young  lady.  Straightway  he  makes 
one  of  the  largest  subscriptions  of  the  evening  and 


^>:t-. 


86  Social  Psychology 

takes  pleasure  in  the  reflection  of  his  liberality  which 
he  beholds  in  the  pleased  countenance  of  the  young 
woman  at  his  side. 

"It  was  my  social  mirror  self  which  manifested  it- 
self to  me  last  Sabbath,"  states  a  lady,  "when  I  made 
my  yearly  pledge  to  the  church.  If  I  had  made  it  by 
myself  and  sent  it  to  the  church  treasurer,  I  would 
have  lowered,  in  view  of  my  present  circumstances, 
the  amount  which  I  gave  last  year.  But  I  was  called 
upon  by  two  prominent  members  of  the  church,  and 
wishing  to  see  a  generous  self  reflected  back  to  me 
from  their  eyes,  I  increased  my  annual  pledge." 

A  business  man  boasts  of  a  shrewd  transaction  to 
a  friend  who  he  knows  will  approve  of  such  a  pro- 
ceeding. When  he  is  talking  with  another  friend, 
who  holds  higher  social  principles,  he  refrains  from 
mentioning  the  questionable  action.  In  the  first  in- 
stance the  reflection  of  himself  as  a  shrewd  business 
man  was  favorable;  in  the  latter  case  it  would  have 
been  unfavorable:  in  both  cases  he  was  guided  by  his 
social  mirror  self. 

A  politician  will  spend  large  sums  of  money  on 
philanthropic  enterprises.  By  so  doing  he  sets  up 
favorable  impressions  of  himself  in  the  minds  of  his 
townspeople.  Later  he  will  utilize  these  impressions 
in  his  campaign  for  votes. 

At  a  meeting  which  was  held  for  money-raising 
purposes,  the  chairman  called  for  subscriptions  of  five 
hundred  dollars.  At  that  moment  a  man  of  means 
raised  his  hand  to  drive  away  an  annoying  fly. 
The  chairman  saw  the  hand,  elatedly  called  out  the 
name  of  the  man,  and  the  audience  cheered  loudly. 


The  Social  Personality  87 

The  wealthy  individual  had  planned  to  contribute  one 
hundred  dollars,  but  rather  than  mar  the  splendid  re- 
flection of  himself  that  had  come  from  his  neighbors 
and  friends  he  cheerfully  paid  the  larger  subscription. 

An  American  abroad  tries  to  do  in  Rome  as  the 
Romans  do.  By  such  actions  he  receives  better  re- 
flections of  himself  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 
A  wide-awake  immigrant  in  the  United  States  quickly 
adopts  American  ways — impelled  by  his  social  mirror 
self. 

"As  a  child  of  five,  I  became  acquainted  in  the  kin- 
dergarten with  a  colored  boy,"  states  a  public  school 
teacher.  "Our  friendship  grew  rapidly.  I  admired 
the  black  face  and  the  small,  tight  curls.  One  day  my 
father  laughed  heartily  at  me  when  he  saw  me  with 
my  colored  playmate.  I  felt  hurt,  and  thereafter 
avoided  the  colored  boy,  not  through  race  prejudice 
on  my  part,  but  through  the  unpleasant  reflection  in 
my  father's  eyes  of  my  association  with  the  Negro 
child." 

The  self  respect  of  an  individual  often  depends  on 
maintaining  the  respect  of  other  people.  If  he  loses 
the  esteem  of  his  friends,  he  is  likely  to  lose  his  own 
self  respect.  "I  would  enjoy  riding  a  bicycle,"  says 
a  middle-aged  woman,  "but  the  impression  that  I 
should  make  upon  my  friends  would  be  unfavorable 
and  hence  I  abstain." 

A  housewife  who  could  not  afford  to  use  ice  secured 
an  ice-card  and  put  it  in  the  window,  but  always  after 
the  ice  wagon  had  passed  her  house.  She  wanted  her 
neighbors  to  think  that  she  bought  ice,  because  thereby 
she  might  not  lose  caste  in  their  eyes.     For  a  similar 


88  Social  Psychology 

reason  a  child  in  school  often  will  study  in  order  to 
recite  well.  He  is  not  guided  by  his  desire  to  learn 
so  much  as  by  the  desire  to  maintain  a  worthy  opinion 
of  himself  in  the  judgments  of  his  classmates.  Like- 
wise, the  growing  adolescent  who  suddenly  becomes 
interested  in  the  cleanliness  of  his  neck  and  ears  is 
endeavoring  to  maintain  or  improve  his  standing  in 
the  eyes  of  a  young  girl.  His  mood  changes  from 
dejection  to  hilarity  as  the  reflection  of  himself  in  her 
eyes  changes  from  unworthy  to  worthy. 

"At  the  age  of  ten,"  a  young  man  relates,  "I  found 
myself  considered  the  black  sheep  of  the  family.  Be- 
cause of  this  reputation,  other  boys  envied  me.  Even 
my  elders  sometimes  made  complimentary  remarks 
about  my  startling  conduct.  On  more  than  one  occasion 
I  overheard  my  parents  describe  my  pranks  to  their 
friends,  and  then  I  would  hear  them  all  laugh  loudly, 
and  I  would  swell  with  pride.  Many  references  were 
made  to  my  actions  in  a  more  or  less  approving  way. 
From  these  experiences  I  gained  favorable  impressions 
of  my  black-sheep  self.  My  roguishness  was  stimu- 
lated by  hearing  such  expressions  as,  "Oh!  isn't  he  a 
clever  rascal."  Consequently,  I  began  deliberately  to 
act  the  part  of  a  black  sheep;  and  some  of  the  things 
which  I  did  would  not  read  well  here.  I  was  saved 
from  going  to  the  dogs  because  our  family  (a  minis- 
ter's family)  moved  "to  another  town  where  my  friends 
— especially  one  girl  friend — did  not  consider  that  a 
black  sheep  should  be  envied.  The  reflection  of  my 
dare-devil  self  no  longer  had  a  halo  around  it,  and  I 
changed." 

"When  I  was  asked  to  give  an  illustration  of  my 


The  Social  Personality  89 

social  mirror  self,"  reports  a  student,  "I  chose  the  best 
example  of  which  I  could  think.  When  I  was  trying 
to  decide  whether  or  not  to  use  this  particular  illustra- 
tion, it  occurred  to  me  that  the  only  reason  I  was  un- 
willing to  use  it  was  because  of  the  unfavorable  reflec- 
tion of  myself  which  it  would  produce  in  the  mind  of 
my  instructor.  Hence  in  the  very  process  of  choos- 
ing an  illustration,  the  social  mirror  self  had  inter- 
fered." 

The  development  of  character  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  social  mirrors  which  surround  the  indi- 
vidual. A  growing,  active-minded,  or  sensitive 
child  is  particularly  affected  by  the  reflection  of  his 
acts  which  he  sees  in  the  human  mirrors  about  him. 
If  a  bad  act  or  a  good  act  is  reflected  favorably  to 
him,  he  is  likely  to  repeat  it  until  it  becomes  a  habit. 
Similarly,  although  at  times  in  a  lesser  degree,  the 
individual  is  affected  throughout  life. 

The  individual  continually  experiences  a  conflict  of 
socially  reflected  selves.  He  cares  more  for  the  re- 
flections of  himself  which  he  receives  from  his  friends 
than  from  strangers  or  enemies,  and  from  his  dearest 
friends  than  from  casual  friends.  For  this  reason  he 
shows  as  a  rule  his  best  nature  to  his  friends  and  his 
worst  nature  to  his  enemies  and  is  careless  about  the 
impressions  which  he  makes  upon  strangers.  For  this 
reason,  also,  he  commonly  is  more  subject  to  sugges- 
tions which  come  from  friends  than  to  those  which 
emanate  from  enemies. 

The  individual  is  affected  most  by  the  reflections  of 
himself  which  come  from  those  who  are  like-minded. 
It  v/as  this  which  Hume  doubtless  had  in  mind  when 


90  Social  Psychology 

he  said:  "The  praises  of  others  never  give  us  as  much 
pleasure  unless  they  concur  with  our  own  opinion.  .  . 
A  mere  soldier  little  values  the  character  of  elo- 
quence. .  .  Or  a  merchant,  of  learning."  The  ex- 
planation of  this  statement  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  soldier  has  superiors  who  belittle  eloquence,  and 
the  merchant  admires  "captains  of  industry,"  whose 
love  for  the  academic  is  not  great.  The  first  finds 
himself  reprimanded  for  much  speaking,  and  the  latter 
discovers  that  he  is  held  in  derision  for  much  theoriz- 
ing. 

Groups,  also,  have  their  socially  reflected  selves. 
The  actions  of  groups,  also,  are  guided  by  the  social 
reflections.  In  the  Declaration  of  Independence  Jef- 
ferson wrote  that  "a  decent  respect  to  the  opinion  of 
mankind"  required  that  our  forefathers  should  make 
a  statement  of  the  causes  which  impelled  them  to  re- 
volt. At  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  each  large 
nation  hastened  to  give  its  reasons  for  declaring  war 
and  tried  to  justify  itself  in  the  eyes  of  the  world. 

The  operation  of  the  socially  reflected  self  explains 
partially  the  influence  of  the  gang  upon  the  boy,  of  the 
fraternity  upon  the  student,  of  the  afternoon  bridge 
party  upon  the  debutante,  of  the  labor  union  upon 
their  industrial  neophyte,  of  the  board  of  directors 
upon  the  foreman  or  the  clerk,  of  any  occupational 
group  upon  its  members.  To  an  amazing  degree  the 
socially  reflected  self  determines  the  direction  of  both 
individual  and  group  change. 


The  Social  Personality  91 

PROBLEMS 

(THE  SOCIAL  EMOTIONS  AND  SENTIMENTS) 

1.  Is  anger  a  good  guide  to  action ? 

2.  What  are  the  physical  expressions  of  (a)  a 
happy  face,  (b)  a  sad  face,  and  (c)  an  angry  face? 

3.  Is  it  true  that  one  of  the  first  qualifications  of 
a  successful  public  school  teacher  is  to  be  happy? 

4.  Why  are  one's  sympathies  more  keen  toward 
a  fellow  countryman  in  a  foreign  country  than  when 
one  is  at  home  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  not  enough  for  a  business  man  to  be 
a  sympathetic  husband,  parent,  and  neighbor? 

6.  Should  every  citizen  indulge  occasionally  in 
capricious  and  sympathetic  giving? 

7.  Why  do  children  fear  the  dark  ? 

8.  Explain :    Only  those  succeed  who  worry. 

9.  Do  people  summon  a  physician  in  order  to  get 
sympathy? 

10.  What  is  the  chief  social  value  of  love? 

11.  Can  one  love  his  neighbor  at  will? 

12.  If  one  can  not  love  his  neighbor,  what  is  the 
next  best  thing  to  do? 

13.  What  is  the  chief  social  value  of  hate? 

14.  What  is  the  leading  social  value  in  suffering? 

15.  Is  it  true  that  friends  are  persons  who  have 
about  the  same  sets  of  prejudices? 

(THE    SOCIAL    SELF,    THE    SOCIALLY    REFLECTED 

SELF) 

16.  Distinguish  between  the  individual  self  and  the 
social  self. 


92  Social  Psychology 

17.  What  causes  a  little  boy  to  become  ashamed  of 
wearing  dresses? 

18.  Why  did  a  little  girl  pray :  "Please,  God,  make 
my  hair  straight  because  I  don't  like  curls"  ? 

19.  Give  an  original  illustration  of  the  social  mir- 
ror self. 

20.  Why  is  it  easier  to  talk  with  one  individual 
than  to  talk  to  fifteen? 

21.  In  what  different  ways  does  the  social  mirror 
self  of  the  pupil  affect  his  recitation  in  class? 

22.  Are  men  or  women  more  sensitive  to  their 
socially  reflected  selves? 

23.  Why  does  the  average  small  boy  dislike  dish- 
washing ? 

24.  What  is  the  chief  cause  of  bashfulness? 

25.  Is  the  gregarious  instinct  or  the  socially  re- 
flected self  the  greater  factor  in  arousing  the  desire  of 
a  college  girl  "to  make  a  sorority"  ? 

26.  Are  the  wealthy  or  the  poor  more  sensitive  to 
their  socially  reflected  selves? 

27.  Would  you  have  achieved  much,  if  no  one  had 
ever  expected  anything  of  you? 

READINGS 

(THE  SOCIAL  EMOTIONS  AND  SENTIMENTS) 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  VIII. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  IV. 

Social  Organization,  Chs.  XVI,  XVII. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XI. 

Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  XIV. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Ch.  IX. 
McDougall,    WilHam,    An    Introduction    to    Social   Psychology, 
Chs.  IV,  V,  XV. 


The  Social  Personality  93 

Ribot,  Th.,  The  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  Part  II,  Ch.  IV. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  Chs.  II,  III. 

Seneca's  Morals,  tran.  by  R.  L'Estrange,  (On  Anger),  pp.  319-42. 

Shand,  A.  F.,  Foundations  of  Character. 

Smith,  Adam,  A  Theory  of  the  Moral  Sentiments. 

In  Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XVI. 

Tarde,  Gabriel,  Etudes  de  psychologie  sociale,  pp.  279-86. 
Thomdike,  E.  L.,  The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  Ch.  XI. 
Wallas,  Graham,  The  Great  Society,  Chs.  IV,  IX. 

(THE    SOCIAL    SELF,    THE    SOCIALLY    REFLECTED 

SELF) 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  II. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Chs.  V,  VI. 

Social  Organisation,  Chs.  I,  II. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  IX. 

Inductive  Sociology,  Part  IV,  Ch.  III. 

Hobhouse,  L.  T.,  Mind  in  Evolution,  Ch.  XVII. 

McDougall,  William,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Chs. 

VI,  VIII. 
Ormund,   A.   T.,   "The   Social    Individual,"   Psychological   Bui., 

VIII:  27-41. 
Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  IV,  V. 


Chapter  V. 

THE  SOCIAL  PERSONALITY 

(Continued) 

5.  The  Communicative  Self.  In  the  give-and- 
take  between  persons  there  arise  sets  of  symbols  with 
their  meanings — this  is  language.  Even  animals 
develop  languages.  The  mother  bird  utters  a  shrill 
cry  and  the  young  who  run  to  cover  are  saved.  A  set 
of  simple  sounds,  or  calls,  or  emotional  ejaculations 
constitutes  language  in  the  animal  world.  The  cry 
and  the  exclamation  are  the  starting-points  of  that 
elaborate  set  of  symbols  which  is  represented  in  an 
unabridged  dictionary. 

The  human  infant  early  learns  to  cry — and  hence  to 
speak — in  a  half  dozen  different  ways.  To  one  who 
is  unacquainted  with  children  these  different  cries 
sound  alike,  but  to  the  mother  they  are  meaningful. 
There  are  the  particular  cries  of  hunger,  of  physical 
pain,  of  fear,  of  anger,  of  general  discomfort  and  fret- 
fulness,  and  of  the  acquired  habit  to  be  taken  up  and 
rocked.  Each  of  these  cries  develops  in  later  life  into 
whole  vocabularies.  If  acquired  cries,  such  as  the  cry 
to  be  picked  up  and  soothed,  does  not  produce  the 
vaguely  desired  result,  it  will  die  out.  In  other  words, 
the  cry  and  the  recognition  of  its  meaning  are  insep- 
arable.    Language  in  its  simplest  expression  is  a  sym- 


The  Social  Personality  95 

bol  and  its  meaning.  The  significance  of  the  symbol 
must  be  clear  to  the  individual  with  whom  communi- 
cation is  held. 

The  symbol  is  always  a  gesture  of  some  form.  It 
may  be  pantomimic,  i.  e.,  of  the  hands  and  shoulders, 
or  facial,  or  vocal.  Gestures  of  the  hands  and  shoul- 
ders are  common  among  the  deaf,  among  foreigners 
who  are  trying  in  a  strange  environment  to  make  their 
wants  known,  among  any  excited  group  of  people, 
among  adults  who  are  at  a  loss  to  find  the  precise 
words  that  they  want  to  use.  Civilized  people  use 
pantomimic  and  facial  gestures  continually  for  the 
purpose  of  naturally  supplementing  vocal  gestures  and 
in  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  communicative  self 
when  vocal  language  fails. 

It  is  stated  that  the  Eskimos  who  were  brought  to 
the  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893  imme- 
diately began  to  communicate  with  a  group  of  deaf 
and  dumb  Americans  on  the  basis  of  "sign"  language. 
The  two  groups  possessed  a  common  medium  of  com- 
munication. 

The  ordinary  gestures  of  the  hands  and  shoulders 
convey  meanings  which  are  easy  to  grasp.  Panto- 
mimic gestures  are  practical,  for  example,  the  open, 
extended  hand,  or  the  clenched  fist.  Pantomimic  ges- 
tures are  unconsciously  imitated  on  a  large  scale. 
Even  the  majority  of  the  people  of  an  entire  nation 
may  develop  common  peculiarities  of  pantomimic 
gestures. 

The  facial  gesture  centers  about  the  eyes  and  mouth. 
Like  pantomimic  gesture,  it  is  easily  and  universally 
intelligible.     If  you  are  perfectly  frank  and  unreserved 


96  Social  Psychology 

when  you  look  at  me,  I  can  tell  how  you  feel  about 
me  even  though  you  do  not  speak  my  vocal  language. 
The  smile  of  welcome  or  the  glance  of  hatred  are  un- 
derstood the  world  around.  The  foreigner  always 
and  naturally  gives  careful  attention  to  the  facial  ges- 
tures of  the  people  whom  he  meets,  whether  he  be  a 
Greek  immigrant  in  the  United  States  or  an  American 
in  Turkey.  Although  he  may  require  several  years  to 
learn  the  vocal  language  of  a  country,  he  understands 
facial  gestures  at  once. 

Vocal  language  arises  out  of  the  sudden  exhalation 
of  the  breath — in  the  exclamatory  cry.  An  elemental 
step  in  the  process  of  language  formation  is  the  nam- 
ing of  objects,  i.  e.,  the  creating  of  nouns.  When  the 
baby  cries  "ba  ba,"  "pa  pa,"  and  "ma  ma,"  he  names 
himself,  his  father,  and  his  mother  respectively — un- 
consciously to  himself  and  to  others,  including  his  par- 
ents. The  rise  of  verbs,  except  as  they  are  some- 
times used  as  nouns,  comes  late.  A  verb  involves  the 
recognition  of  two  objects  and  particularly  the  rela- 
tionship between  them.  Abstract  concepts  are  the 
last  phases  of  language  to  acquire  definite  meaning. 
A  five  year  old  girl  with  a  considerable  vocabulary  of 
nouns  and  verbs  will  persistently  ask  such  questions 
as  these:  "What  is  'honesty'?"  "What  does  'honest 
to  goodness'  mean?"  "What  does  'I  doubt  it'  mean?" 
Even  an  adult  finds  difficulty  in  reducing  such  a  term 
as  "democracy"  to  satisfactory  imagery. 

Teaching  is  a  process  of  transforming  unintelligible 
and  higher  ideas  and  methods  into  intelligible  and 
lower  signs  and  symbols.  Frequently  the  successful 
teacher,  whether  of  music  or  of  cooking,  is  she  who 


The  Social  Personality  97 

goes  through  a  whole  act  in  the  presence  of  the  pupils. 
As  the  latter  learn,  the  teacher  reproduces  only  a  few 
motions,  and  finally  she  gives  only  now  and  then  a 
gesture,  "a  cry,  a  look,  an  attitude."  The  orchestra 
leader  finds  his  trained  players  responding  at  once  and 
accurately  to  his  slightest  facial  and  pantomimic 
gestures.  The  teacher  of  philosophy  speaks  to  his 
class  as  through  a  glass  darkly  until  perchance  by  a 
few  deft  chalk  marks  on  the  blackboard  he  releases  a 
flood  of  light. 

In  every  case  the  gesture  represents  the  beginning 
of  a  whole  act.^  As  soon  as  the  second  party  recog- 
nizes the  act  for  which  the  given  gesture  is  the  be- 
ginning, conversation  has  begun.  The  response  will 
consist  of  another  gesture,  which  in  turn  is  the  begin- 
ning of  another  act — and  thus  the  conversation  of  atti- 
tudes and  appropriate  responses  takes  place.  Hence, 
language  is  a  social  phenomenon  and  consists  in  an 
interchange  of  gestures  and  suitable  responses  between 
individuals;  language  is  a  conversation  of  attitudes 
and  responses.  Social  life  itself  is  built  upon  inter- 
changes of  symbols  and  their  meanings  between  indi- 
viduals. 

As  new  individual  and  social  situations  arise,  new 
symbols  of  expression  are  needed.  Sometimes  the  in- 
vented term  is  a  studied  compound  of  latinized  antiques 
and  sometimes  it  is  the  shortest  cut  between  two  ideas, 
namely,  a  new  slang  phrase.  In  other  words,  lan- 
guage is  always  in  the  process  of  creation.  Hereto- 
fore new  communicative  gestures  usually  have  been 

'C/.  G.  H.  Mead,  "Social  Consciousness  and  the  Conscious- 
ness of  Meaning,"  Psychological  Bui,  VII :  397-405. 


98  Social  Psychology 

created  fortuitously  and  thoughtlessly.  There  is  need 
for  an  increased  conscious  control  of  the  processes  of 
inventing  language. 

The  social  psychology  of  conversation  is  a  fascinat- 
ing and  important  theme.  ( i )  A  good  conversation- 
alist has  a  rich  personality.  He  has  something  to 
give,  besides  words;  he  is  not  merely  a  fluent  talker. 
He  has  more  than  a  large  vocabulary  and  a  wide  com- 
mand of  English.  He  is  not  only  courteous  and  pos- 
sessed of  cultivated  manners,  but  projects  his  person- 
ality into  the  situations  of  other  people  and  throws 
helpful,  sympathetic  light  upon  the  experiences  of  his 
associates.  In  his  contact  with  his  fellows,  he  is  both 
individual  and  social. 

(2)  A  good  conversationalist  knows  a  few  things 
well  and  authoritatively,  but  he  does  not  talk  "shop." 
At  this  point  many  persons  are  helpless.  They  know 
and  can  talk  about  only  one  thing — their  daily  work. 
Outside  this  subject,  they  have  nothing  to  converse 
about  except  the  weather  and  items  of  gossip.  The 
praiseworthy  conversationalist  has  a  number  of  avoca- 
tional  interests.  Although  denied  occupational  topics 
and  gossip,  he  is  able  to  introduce  several  avocational 
lines  of  thought.  He  has  travelled,  and  observed 
keenly  when  travelling.  He  has  developed  a  con- 
stantly enlarging  horizon  of  knowledge. 

(3)  A  good  conversationalist  studies  the  interests 
of  people.  He  relates  his  avocational  information  to 
the  major  interests  of  his  friends.  His  conversation 
enlightens  others,  not  concerning  himself,  but  regard- 
ing themselves.     He  does  not  talk  about  the  "big  I," 


The  Social  Personality  99 

but  creates  an  important  "you."     He  centers  his  con- 
versation in  the  personalities  of  his  listeners. 

(4)  A  good  conversationalist  is  a  trained  listener. 
He  is  not  a  monologist.  He  does  not  do  all  the  talk- 
ing. He  gets  other  people  to  talk.  It  is  a  part  of  his 
function  to  get  his  would-be  listeners  to  describe  their 
unique  experiences.  He  endeavors  to  learn  some- 
thing from  everyone  whom  he  meets. 

(5)  -^  good  conversationalist  is  a  director  of  con- 
versation. He  is  a  skillful  questioner.  He  elicits  in- 
formation from  the  bashful  and  halts  the  talk  of  the 
wordy.  He  not  only  does  not  monopolize  conversa- 
tion himself,  but  he  permits  no  one  else  to  do  so.  He 
does  not  simply  make  his  own  contribution  to  the  dis- 
cussions of  an  assembled  company,  but  he  sees  that 
everyone  else  does  likewise. 

The  communicative  self  is  close  to  the  heart  of  so- 
cial life.  With  a  very  simple  or  even  a  very  elaborate 
set  of  communicative  machinery,  the  communicative 
self  makes  social  intercourse  possible.  It  arises  from 
social  contacts.  It  affords  the  basis  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  likemindedness ;  it  turns  likemindedness  into 
closely  knit  social  intimacies. 

The  communicative  self  makes  possible  a  social  con- 
sciousness. It  enables  individuals  to  generate  social 
ideals  and  to  realize  a  complex  order  of  social  co- 
operation. With  its  ever-increasing  array  of  gesture- 
meanings  language  constitutes  perhaps  the  most  fun- 
damental social  institution.  Without  it,  neither  the 
family,  school,  church,  nor  the  state  could  arise.  In 
brief,  the  communicative  self  is  the  social  self  in  action. 


[OO  Social  Psychology 

6.  The  Mirthful  Self.  At  first  thought  the  sub- 
ject of  laughter  does  not  seem  to  be  serious  enough 
to  merit  scientific  discussion.  It,  however,  is  a  phe- 
nomenon which  manifests  itself  continually  in  social 
life.  Further,  some  of  the  world's  greatest  thinkers 
have  pondered  over  the  causes  of  laughter. 

According  to  Aristotle  comedy  is  an  imitation  of 
character,  or  characteristics,  of  a  lower  type  than  the 
imitator  typifies.  The  laughable  is  something  de- 
grading in  the  object  or  person  at  which  one  laughs — 
this  is  known  as  the  theory  of  degradation.  Thomas 
Hobbes  developed  the  theory  of  superiority.  Accord- 
ing to  this  conception  one  laughs  because  of  an  ex- 
pansion of  feeling  which  is  brought  on  through  realiz- 
ing his  superiority  over  the  person,  or  thing,  or  situa- 
tion at  which  he  laughs.  Addison  held  that  pride  is 
the  chief  cause  of  laughter. 

Kant  explained  laughter  on  the  basis  of  nullification 
of  expectation,  that  is,  laughter  arises  "from  the  sud- 
den transformation  of  a  strained  expectation  into 
nothing."  The  theory  of  incongruity  was  advanced 
by  Schopenhauer.  Laughter  is  caused  by  the  sudden 
realization  of  an  incongruity  between  a  conception  and 
the  real  object  with  which  it  is  in  some  way  connected. 
Herbert  Spencer  advanced  the  idea  that  laughter  indi- 
cates an  effort  which  suddenly  encounters  a  void. 
Sully  states  that  laughter  is  due  to  a  sudden  release 
from  a  strained  and  tense  situation.  Bergson  ex- 
presses the  belief  that  laughter  is  primarily  caused  by 
the  appearance  of  mechanical  inelasticity  in  human 
life.  These  single  theory  explanations  of  laughter  are 
enlightening,  but  partial  and  hence  inadequate.     The 


The  Social  Personality  lOi 

synthetic  treatment  of  laughter  which  is  given  by 
Boris  Sidis  is  stimulating  and  extensively  illustrated 
but  incomplete.^ 

The  writer  believes  that  the  feeling  of  mirth  arises 
from  the  social  self  and  related  antecedents  and  that 
its  causes  are  very  many  and  intricately  interwoven. 
The  mirthful  self  is  the  social  self  suddenly  experi- 
encing any  one  of  an  endless  variety  of  unexpected, 
incongruous  but  relatively  harmless  occurrences.  An 
elemental  condition  of  laughter  is  an  agreeable  tone  of 
consciousness.  In  this  regard,  Professor  Bergson 
seems  to  overlook  an  important  factor,  for  he  says 
that  the  appeal  of  laughter  is  to  intelligence,  pure  and 
simple,  and  that  "laughter  is  incompatible  with  emo- 
tion."^ It  is  true  that  laughter  is  incompatible  with 
sorrow  and  as  a  rule  with  anger,  but  on  the  other 
hand  it  bubbles  over  naturally  from  the  fountains  of 
joy.  In  fact  a  feeling  or  emotional  basis  of  pleasant- 
ness and  agreeableness  must  exist  before  any  situation 
appears  humorous  to  the  individual. 

In  order  to  see  the  humorous  side  of  life  one  must 
enjoy  a  fair  degree  of  physical  health  and  of  mental 
exuberance.  If  he  has  suffered  long  hours  of  tedious 
labor  without  sleep,  if  he  has  been  the  victim  of  recent 
financial  reverses,  if  loved  ones  are  dangerously  ill, 
the  mirthful  self  is  likely  to  be  quiescent.  The  play 
tendencies  and  the  playful  spirit  are  fundamental  to 
the  expression  of  mirth.  It  is  from  the  most  playful 
and  exuberant  hours  of  group  life  that  the  heartiest 
laughter  breaks  forth. 

'See  Sully's  An  Essay  on  Laughter,  Bergson's  Laughter,  and 
Sidis'  Psychology  of  Laughter  for  extended  discussions. 
*Laughter,  pp.  5,  139. 


I02  Social  Psychology 

Another  factor  which  is  basic  to  laughter  is  the 
gregarious  instinct.  Laughter  is  born  from  social 
contacts.  Whenever  two  or  more  persons  who  are 
kindred  spirits  are  gathered  together  under  agreeable 
circumstances,  they  are  likely  to  burst  out  into  laughter 
at  any  moment.  If  a  person  who  is  alone  is  heard  to 
laugh  long  and  heartily  he  is  at  once  interrogated,  and 
if  he  repeats  frequently  the  process,  he  is  regarded 
with  suspicion.  Thus,  the  conditions  precedent  to 
laughter  are  an  agreeable  tone  of  consciousness, 
physical  and  mental  health,  favoring  circumstances, 
the  play  tendencies,  and  gregariousness. 

In  the  conditions  precedent  to  laughter  there  is  a 
set  of  relatively  simple  causes.  The  simplest  cause  of 
laughter  is  probably  physical  tickling — the  infant 
laughs  automatically  when  the  palms  of  his  hands  or 
the  bottoms  of  his  feet  are  touched  or  rubbed  slightly. 
In  a  severe  form  this  factor  leads  to  hysterical 
laughter. 

Another  elemental  cause  is  physical  and  mental 
exuberance.  The  simplest  incongruity  will  set  off  the 
joy-in-living  spirit  of  a  group  of  girls,  and  the  result 
will  be  ripples  of  silly  laughter.  In  this  way  giggling 
usually  originates.  The  boisterous  laughter  of  youths 
may  be  traced  to  similar  origins. 

Relief  from  strained  situations  sometimes  produces 
laughter.  Observe  the  children,  released  from  hours 
of  study  and  recitation,  rush  forth  from  the  school 
building  with  joyous  peals  of  laughter.  Sudden  re- 
lease from  either  physical  or  mental  strain  is  a  cause 
of  laughter. 


The  Social  Personality  103 

Likewise,  exhaustion  when  unexpectedly  relieved 
may  result  in  hysterical  laughter — a  subnormal  type. 
Physical  tickling,  surplus  energy,  relief  from  tension, 
and  sudden  release  from  overstrain  constitute  four 
physico-psychological  sources  of  laughter. 

The  second  important  group  of  factors  is  the  psy- 
cho-sociological. In  this  class  the  simplest  is  group 
contagion.  A  child  may  laugh  because  he  hears  an- 
other child  or  adult  laughing.  A  member  of  an  adult 
group  may  laugh  because  he  is  unconsciously  stimu- 
lated by  the  laughing  of  others.  This  type  is  a  direct 
expression  of  sympathetic  emotion. 

A  member  of  a  group  will  often  laugh  in  order  to 
seem  interested  in  the  story  or  incident  that  is  related. 
Even  though  the  matter  may  not  appeal  to  him  as 
humorous,  he  participates  in  the  laughter  out  of  re- 
spect for  the  host  or  the  speaker. 

Laughter  sometimes  results  from  the  desire  not  to 
be  conspicuous.  The  listener  may  fail  to  catch  the 
point  of  a  story,  but  joins  in  the  group  laughter. 
When  other  persons  are  enjoying  apparently  a  choice 
bit  of  comedy,  it  often  seems  wiser  to  participate  even 
though  the  point  has  not  been  grasped  than  to  be  con- 
spicuous by  appearing  cold  or  stolid. 

Laughter  is  occasionally  forced.  An  individual  is 
insulted  by  a  slighting  remark.  He  does  not  want  to 
recognize  the  incident,  therefore  he  will  parry  the 
thrust  by  laughing.  One  may  be  asked  an  embarrass- 
ing or  impertinent  question,  but  in  order  not  to  show 
his  feelings  in  the  presence  of  spectators,  he  will  turn 
the  matter  aside  with  a  laugh.     The  implication  is  that 


I04  Social  Psychology 

the  problem  is  not  nearly  as  important  as  the  ques- 
tioner believes,  or  would  have  other  people  believe, 
and  consequently  the  one  who  is  questioned  is  relieved 
of  embarassment  or  confusion. 

Laughter  is  sometimes  utilized  to  cover  pain.  One's 
pride  may  lead  him  to  invoke  a  laughing  mood.  Pain 
is  frequently  camouflaged  by  laughter.  Tears  may 
be  concealed  by  laughter.  A  four-year-old  boy  picked 
himself  up  after  a  hard  fall,  rubbed  his  bleeding  knee, 
and  laughingly  said:     "Wasn't  that  a  joke  on  me?" 

Children,  and  some  adults,  will  indulge  in  laughter 
in  order  to  attract  attention.  The  girl  who  laughs  the 
loudest  may  be  one  who  is  wearing  a  bright  new  ribbon 
or  the  latest  fad  in  sweaters,  or  the  boy  who  laughs 
above  the  boisterous  laughter  of  the  gang  may  be  a 
conscious  candidate  for  hero  worship. 

Persons  are  paid  to  make  others  laugh.  They  un- 
dergo periods  of  training  in  order  to  become  skillful 
in  deliberately  creating  laughter.  The  professional 
reader,  the  platform  lecturer  upon  humorous  themes, 
and  the  actors  in  high-class  comedies  are  usually  con- 
structive in  their  aims  and  results.  Of  all  paid  en- 
tertainers, the  average  vaudeville  performer  or  burl- 
esque actor  makes  the  crudest  attempts.  Plain  silli- 
ness is  preferable  to  the  sexually  suggestive  jokes  at 
which  respectable  people  laugh  when  attending  a 
musical  comedy. 

Probably  the  most  common  cause  of  laughter  is 
found  in  the  incongruous  actions  of  other  individuals. 
A  dog  chases  his  tail,  a  boy  with  a  basket  of  eggs  falls 
down,  a  dignified  man  runs  after  his  wind-blown  hat 
— these  are  never-failing,  mirth-provoking  incongrui- 


The  Social  Personality  105 

ties.  The  Charlie  Chaplin  films  succeed  because  of 
the  portrayal  of  incongruous  movements,  actions,  and 
situations. 

The  instructor  in  a  history  class  noticed  a  student 
who  was  gazing  out  of  the  window  and  called  upon 
her  to  recite.  When  he  suddenly  pronounced  her 
name,  "Miss  Smith,"  she  cried  out,  "Hello."  She  had 
been  startled  from  her  day-dreaming,  and  her  incon- 
gruous reply  set  the  class  into  an  uproar.  The  humor 
of  A  House-Boat  on  the  Styx  is  partially  due  to  the 
bringing  together  in  time  and  place  of  famous  charac- 
ters with  their  widely  divergent  ways  and  experiences 
— the  result  is  an  incongruous  juxtaposition  of  events 
and  personalities. 

In  this  connection  Henri  L.  Bergson  has  pointed  out 
that  incongruity  consists  frequently  in  mechanical 
movements  or  gestures  where  the  naturally  human  is 
expected.  The  comic  physiognomy  is  essentially  a 
mechanical  facial  gesture.  The  mechanical  gesture 
of  the  hand  of  a  public  speaker  upon  repetition  be- 
comes ludicrous.  The  dignified  person  who  falls, 
falls  hard,  that  is,  mechanically.  The  goat  who  rears 
and  butts  whenever  his  forehead  is  pressed  acts  me- 
chanically— and  hence  comically. 

Then  there  are  incongruous  ideas  which  are  com- 
mon causes  of  laughter.  Some  of  these  types  of  in- 
congruity in  ideas  have  been  analyzed  by  Boris  Sidis. 
(i)  Illogical  statements.  Many  of  the  "Pat  and 
Mike"  stories  are  of  this  character.  Pat  was  breath- 
lessly running  along  a  country  road  in  Ireland  one 
day  when  he  was  accosted  by  Mike  who  asked  him 
why  he  was  hurrying  so  fast.    "I  have  a  long  way  to 


lo6  Social  Psychology 

go,"  replied  Pat,  "and  I  want  to  get  there  before  I 
am  all  tired  out." 

(2)  Grammatical  and  rhetorical  errors.  Com- 
mon illustrations  are  found  in  the  assertions  of  young 
children.     Note  the  following  examples. 

"Don't  unbusy  me." 
"The  sun  is  rising  down"  (setting). 
"You  two  people  are  sitting  down  and  we  two  peo- 
ple are  sitting  up"  (standing). 

(3)  Idiomatical  and  related  mistakes.  Children, 
foreigners,  and  uneducated  persons  are  often  the  vic- 
tims of  the  mistaken  use  of  words  and  phrases.  The 
foreigner  in  any  land  falls  into  countless  misguided 
uses  of  a  strange  tongue.  These  errors  are  illustrated 
in  the  "Togo"  stories  by  Wallace  Irwin : 

"I  studied  dictionary  so  I  could  unlearn  my  poor 
ignorance." 

"I  welcome  lobster  cordially,  yet  I  never  could  make 
them  set  quietly  on  my  digestion." 

"While  I  was  setting  pealing  potatoes  of  suddenly 
come  Indiana  yell  befront  of  my  back  while  stool  leg 
on  which  I  was  occupying  flop  uply  so  confused  that 
I  were  deposed  to  floor  with  potatoes  pouring  over  my 
brain." 

(4)  The  play  on  words.  When  a  Scotch  regi- 
ment was  marching  to  the  front  in  France,  a  French 
soldier  who  was  watching  them  said :  "They  can't  be 
men,  for  they  wear  skirts,  and  they  can't  be  women 
for  they  have  moustaches."  "I  have  it,"  said  another 
poilu,  "they're  that  famous  Middlesex  regiment  from 
London." 

( 5 )  Overstatement  or  understatement  that  is  mod- 


The  Social  Personality  107 

erate  and  implied.  Lying  is  not  humorous.  A 
House-Boat  on  the  Styx  affords  many  illustrations  of 
overstatements.  After  careful  calculation  and  patient 
waiting  for  thirteen  days  the  hunter  finds  that  the 
sixty-eight  ducks  which  he  has  been  observing  have 
formed  in  a  straight  line.  The  powder  is  minutely 
estimated  and  a  valuable  pearl — since  the  marksman 
has  no  bullets — is  used  as  the  instrument  of  destruc- 
tion. The  sixty-eight  ducks  are  killed.  The  pearl 
traveled  through  the  bodies  of  sixty-seven  and  re- 
tained enough  force  to  kill  the  sixty-eighth,  in  whose 
body  it  was  found — and  saved. 

(6)  A  sudden  change  from  the  serious  to  the 
trifling  or  ridiculous.  Boris  Sidis  refers  to  "Pat" 
who  was  being  upbraided  for  not  being  better  educated 
and  who  gave  the  following  explanation :  "I  was  a 
bright  man  at  birth,  but  when  I  was  a  few  days  old, 
my  nurse  exchanged  me  for  another  baby  who  was  a 
fool." 

(7)  Unintended  suggestion.  A  church  in  a 
western  town  must  hold  long  services  for  it  recently 
announced :  "The  regular  services  will  commence 
next  Sunday  evening  at  7  o'clock  and  continue  until 
further  notice." 

One  day  two  lawyers  who  were  arguing  the  opposite 
sides  of  a  case  became  angry  at  one  another  and  one 
of  them  pointing  to  the  other,  said :  "That  attorney 
is  the  ugliest  and  meanest  lawyer  in  town." 

"You  forget  yourself,  you  forget  yourself,  Mr. 
Smith,"  said  the  court,  rapping  for  order  with  his 
gavel. 


io8  Social  Psychology 

To  make  fun  of  others  constitutes  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent set  of  causes  of  laughter.  The  group  laughs 
at  almost  any  mistake  or  idiosyncrasy  of  the  individ- 
ual. If  the  error  is  easily  discernible,  the  group 
laughter  may  be  spontaneous.  If  the  mistake  is  deep- 
seated  it  may  not  be  detected  at  once  and  simultane- 
ously, and  the  laughter  of  the  group  may  be  delayed. 
Sometimes  the  group  is  prejudiced  against  an  individ- 
ual, or  it  may  even  be  organized  to  embarrass  him — 
and  he  becomes  the  victim  of  concerted,  even  of  ma- 
licious, laughter. 

There  is  laughter  which  is  simple  ridicule — the  in- 
dividual is  merely  derided.  There  is  laughter  which 
is  satirical  ridicule  and  is  caused  usually  by  the  em- 
ployment of  humorous  exaggeration,  although  caustic 
elements  may  be  used.  There  is  the  ironical  laugh 
which  is  induced  by  covert  satire.  Then  there  is 
laughter  which  is  purely  and  openly  sarcastic,  biting, 
and  generally  anti-social.  Social  ridicule  of  whatever 
degree  is  powerful  because  it  directly  affects  the 
socially  reflected  self. 

Social  laughter  is  a  corrective.  It  arouses  fear, 
"restrains  eccentricity,"  and  prevents  the  individual 
from  becoming  a  stone  hitching-post.  Similarly,  it 
prevents  social  groups  from  becoming  mechanically 
inelastic.  Group  laughter  compels  the  members  to 
keep  in  touch  with  one  another,  and  familiarizes  them 
with  the  different  points  of  view.  In  other  words, 
the  mirthful  self  is  highly  gregarious.  When  persons 
laugh  together,  they  become  better  acquainted.  Mirth- 
fulness  increases  the  social  tone.  Many  a  tense  situa- 
tion is  relieved  by  a  humorous  turn.    Laughter  purifies, 


The  Social  Personality  109 

clarifies,  socializes. 

On  the  other  hand,  mirthfulness  individualizes.  If 
one  would  voice  a  strange  idea,  he  must  brave  social 
laughter.  From  the  opposite  angle,  the  mirthful  self 
is  antagonistic  to  sympathy.  If  one  puts  himself  com- 
pletely in  the  place  of  another,  he  will  rarely  laugh  at 
the  other.  Thus,  the  mirthful  self  may  be  unsympa- 
thetic, impersonal,  objective,  and  even  individualizing. 

The  mirthful  self  is  the  successful  self.  Mirthful- 
ness builds  up  both  the  physical  and  mental  nature  of 
the  individual.  It  shakes  him  up,  stimulates  him,  and 
re-creates  him.  It  sets  his  organism  in  tune,  and 
enables  him  to  laugh  at  his  duller  moments  and  his 
blunders.  Progress  has  been  made  when  one's  mirth- 
ful self  habitually  laughs  at  one's  defeated  self.  No 
national  character  in  America  so  well  exemplifies  this 
trait  at  the  present  time  (1920)  as  does  ex-president 
Taft.  By  this  token  one  can  "come  back,"  renew  his 
mental  youth,  and  multiply  manifold  his  social  use- 
fulness. 

7.  The  Socially  Dependable  Self.  The  depend- 
able self  embraces  a  set  of  well-balanced  habits. 
Strength  of  character  arises  from  habits.  Character 
includes  disposition  and  temperament.  Disposition  is 
the  sum  total  of  one's  instinctive  tendencies,  and  is 
largely  determined  by  hereditary  gifts.  Temperament 
is  one's  constitutional  way  or  ways  of  evaluating  life,* 
and  like  disposition,  is  chiefly  hereditary. 

The  socially  dependable  self,  or  character,  is  built 

*Cf.  William  McDougall,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychol- 
ogy, (eighth  edit.),  pp.  258  ff. 


no  Social  Psychology 

upon  both  disposition  and  temperament.  It  comprises 
not  simply  habits,  but  habits  which  may  be  built  up  in 
ways  that  the  individual  may  himself  determine. 
Character  involves  the  extent  to  and  the  ways  in  which 
one  organizes  his  actions. 

Character  also  includes  the  desires  and  interests. 
Desires  are  rooted  in  the  instinctive  and  feeling  side 
of  life.  They  are  elemental  and  typhonic  when  once 
started  in  motion.  They  are  racial  impulses.  They 
are  often  expressed  crudely,  abruptly,  and  they  may 
shift  suddenly  from  one  to  another  object  of  satisfac- 
tion. Consequently,  the  socially  dependable  self  is  one 
in  which  the  desires  have  been  brought  under  definite 
control. 

Interests  are  subjective-objective  phenomena  which 
have  one  source  in  desires,  another  in  instincts, 
such  as  the  curiosity  instinct,  and  in  objects  in  the 
environment.  They  are  usually  less  fluctuating  and 
more  often  concealed  than  the  feelings  or  even  the 
desires.  They  come  to  be  grounded  in  the  thought 
side  of  personality  and  are  not  easily  modified.  They 
are  especially  dependent  on  the  appeal  of  the  environ- 
ment. They  are  more  objective,  less  passional,  and 
more  dependable  than  desires. 

The  dependable  self  is  psychical;  the  socially  de- 
pendable self  is  psychical  and  moral.  Strength  of 
character  is  socially  insufficient.  A  criminal  may  have 
strength  of  character  but  have  used  it  in  anti-social 
ways.  Education  does  not  necessarily  give  social 
dependence,  because  education  may  train  the  individ- 
ual only  in  self -strength,  self -culture,  and  show  him 
how  to  manipulate  his  fellows  to  his  advantage  and  to 


The  Social  Personality  ill 

their  loss.  "Why  did  you  come  to  college?"  I  asked 
a  young  man  of  strong  character  a  few  months  ago, 
and  he  frankly  replied,  "So  that  I  can  learn  how  to 
work  other  people." 

The  socially  dependable  self  is  born  of  a  training 
which  presents  the  increasing  welfare  of  man  as  a 
goal.  In  a  life  of  group  interactions,  honesty,  reli- 
ability, balance,  chastity,  courage  of  convictions  are 
essential.  The  individual  develops  a  socially  depend- 
able self  first  in  his  relationships  with  his  home  group 
or  in  his  play  group,  i.  e.  the  gang;  then  in  his  deal- 
ings with  larger  groups,  such  as  his  occupational 
coterie,  when  we  pronounce  him  occupationally  ethical ; 
then  in  his  actions  involving  national  welfare,  when 
we  term  him  a  patriot.  The  socially  dependable  self 
is  not  fully  developed,  however,  until  the  ideals  of 
public  welfare  within  the  nation  in  times  of  peace  as 
well  as  of  war  and  the  ideals  of  world  welfare  all  the 
time  are  controlling  factors.  Likewise,  the  socially 
dependable  group-self,  whether  of  a  family  or  of  a 
nation,  is  not  completely  realized  until  it  acts  habitu- 
ally in  recognition  of  the  well-being  of  its  constituent 
units  and  of  the  larger  groups  of  which  it  is  a  func- 
tional part. 

The  realization  of  a  perfect  personality,  in  conclu- 
sion, takes  cognizance  of  three  sets  of  factors,  (i) 
There  is  the  original  human  nature,  composed  largely 
of  instinctive  tendencies.  (2)  There  is  social  action, 
i.  e.,  the  give-and-take  between  individuals.  It  is  the 
social  environment  which  is  essential  to  the  develop- 
ment of  human  nature.  Social  contacts  determine 
what  phases  of  the  individual's  nature  will  be  devel- 


112  Social  Psychology 

oped.  Both  heredity  and  environment  are  determin- 
ing influences  in  personality.  (3)  Then  there  is  the 
individual's  initiative  by  which  he  can  make  himself 
over,  and  construct  habits  in  almost  any  direction  that 
he  chooses  to  project  his  original  nature.^  Human 
nature  has  the  power  of  changing  itself. 

The  individual  must  intelligently  distinguish  be- 
tween self-love  and  selfishness.®  Self-love  includes 
the  conservation  and  the  subsequent  careful  expendi- 
ture of  one's  energies  in  behalf  of  public  welfare; 
selfishness  is  the  miserly  hoarding  of  or  the  wasteful 
rioting  with  one's  energies  in  attempts  to  gratify  pri- 
marily one's  own  self.  Intelligence  is  necessary  in 
order  to  distinguish  between  selfish  and  unselfish 
living. 

Conscience  is  an  elusive  but  essential  element  in 
building  a  perfect  personality.  Although  the  psy- 
chologist has  not  yet  given  a  satisfactory  description 
of  conscience,  it  nevertheless  exerts  tremendous 
power.  Conscience  is  the  most  socialized  self  passing 
judgment  on  all  the  lower  selves.  Since  this  highest  self 
is  an  ideal  self,  rarely  realized  at  the  time,  it  is  often 
impractical.  One's  conscience,  or  the  activities  of 
one's  conscience,  is  measured  at  any  particular  moment 
by  the  distance  which  one's  ideal  of  social  living  has 
advanced  beyond  his  actual  living.  When  the  indi- 
vidual complains  that  his  conscience  troubles  him  he 
ordinarily  means  that  in  some  actual  deed  he  has  not 
lived  the  social  vision  that  he  sees.     In  its  highest 

'For  a  philosophical  discussion  of  this  topic  see  Human  Nature 
and  lis  Remaking  by  W.  E.  Hocking. 

"Developed  in  an  unpublished  lecture  by  F.  W.  Blackmar. 


The  Social  Personality  113 

calling,  conscience  is  the  main  agent  in  making  socially 
dependable  selves  and  in  perfecting  personality. 


PROBLEMS 

(THE  COMMUNICATIVE  SELF) 

1.  What  is  the  social  origin  of  language? 

2.  Name  one  new  word  or  phrase  that  you  have 
recently  added  to  your  vocabulary  and  describe  the 
circumstances  under  which  you  made  the  addition. 

3.  Why  do  people  have  a  strong  desire  to  com- 
municate with  others? 

4.  What  is  the  chief  function  of  communication? 

5.  Why  is  there  so  much  conversation  about 
trivial  matters? 

6.  What  is  the  chief  attribute  of  a  successful 
conversationalist  ? 

7.  Why  is  it  difficult  for  many  people  to  converse 
at  a  formal  reception  ? 

8.  What  is  a  vocal  gesture? 

9.  Is  a  word  a  syncopated  act? 

10.  Why   are   facial   gestures   similar   the   world 
over,  whereas  each  race  has  a  different  vocal  language  ? 

(THE  MIRTHFUL  SELF) 

11.  Why  is  laughter  a  subject  important  enough 
for  serious  discussion  ? 

12.  Why  is  it  worth  while  to  develop  the  habit  of 
seeing  the  humorous  side  of  life? 

13.  What  are  the  physical  expressions  of  a  hearty 
laugh  ? 


114  Social  Psychology 

14.  What  is  Shakespeare's  meaning  when  he 
speaks  of  being  "stabbed"  with  laughter? 

15.  What  does  Milton  mean  when  he  writes  of 
"laughter  holding  both  his  sides"  ? 

16.  Why  do  we  laugh  at  the  incongruous  or  de- 
grading experiences  of  others  instead  of  feeling 
grieved  ? 

17.  Why  is  a  city  dude  in  the  country  a  mirth- 
producing  object? 

18.  Why  is  a  "hayseed"  in  the  city  the  subject  of 
laughter  ? 

19.  Is  man  more  afraid  of  social  ridicule  than  of 
severe  physical  punishment? 

20.  Illustrate:     Laughter  kills  innovations. 

21.  How  do  you  explain  the  statement  that  "the 
true  hero  is  one  who  can  ignore  social  laughter"  ? 

22.  Why  do  people  laugh  at  stories  which  involve 
stuttering  ? 

23.  Why  is  the  walking  of  a  drunken  man  con- 
sidered laughable  by  many  persons  ? 

24.  Why  does  a  wry  face,  although  simulating 
pain,  cause  the  spectator  to  laugh? 

25.  Why  does  the  entrance  of  a  dog  into  a  lecture 
room  filled  with  students  produce  laughter? 

26.  Why  does  the  breaking  down  of  a  chair  dur- 
ing an  address  provoke  laughter  ? 

T-y.     Why  is  the  "comic  sheet"  laughable? 

28.  Why  is  it  laughable  to  see  the  waves  dash  un- 
expectedly over  a  person  who  is  walking  along  the 
beach? 

29.  Why  is  a  trivial  interruption  that  occurs  dur- 
ing a  prayer  service  often  laughable? 


The  Social  Personality  115 

30.  Distinguish  between  humor  and  wit. 

31.  Why  are  deaf  people  and  not  blind  people  used 
in  comedies  ? 

32.  What  is  the  most  common  cause  of  laughter? 

33.  What  is  the  leading  social  value  of  laughter? 

(THE  SOCIALLY  DEPENDABLE  SELF) 

34.  Why  is  character  socially  essential? 

35.  Are  all  dependable  persons  social? 

36.  Are  all  social  selves  dependable  ? 

37.  Why  have  not  more  socially  dependable  selves 
been  turned  out  by  our  educational  system  in  the 
United  States? 


READINGS 

(THE  COMMUNICATIVE  SELF) 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  pp.  137-48. 

Froebel,  F.,  The  Education  of  Man,  pp.  2o8-25. 

Mead,  G.  H.,  "Social  Consciousness  and  the  Consciousness  of 

Meaning,"  Psychological  Bui,  VII :  397-405. 
Preyer,  W.,  Mental  Development  in  the  Child,  Ch.  VII. 
Tarde,  Gabriel,  The  Laws  of  Imitation,  pp.  255-65. 

La  logique  sociale,  Ch.  V. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XXVIII. 

Tylor,  E.  B.,  Anthropology,  Chs.  IV,  V,  VII. 

Wundt,  William,  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology,  pp.  53-67. 

(THE  MIRTHFUL  SELF) 

Bergson,  Henri,  Laughter. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  and  A.  Allin,  "The  Psychology  of  Tickling, 

Laughing,    and    the    Comic,"    Amer.    Jour,    of   Psychol., 

IX:i-4i. 


ii6  Social  Psychology 

Bliss,    Sylvia  H.,   "The   Origin  of   Laughter,"   Amer.   Jour,    of 

Psychol.,  26 :  236-46. 
Meredith,  George,  Essay  on  Comedy  and  the  Comic  Spirit. 
Patrick,  G.  T.  W.,  The  Psychology  of  Relaxation,  Ch.  III. 
Sidis,  Boris,  The  Psychology  of  Laughter. 
Sully,  James,  An  Essay  on  Laughter. 

(THE  SOCIALLY  DEPENDABLE  SELF) 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  XV. 
Hetherington  and  Muirhead,  Social  Purpose,  Ch.  V. 
McDoug^ll,    William,    An    Introduction    to    Social    Psychology, 
Ch.  VIII. 


Chapter  VI. 
SUGGESTION-IMITATION   PHENOMENA 


I.  Suggestion.  Suggestion  and  imitation  are  dif- 
ferent aspects  of  the  same  phenomenon.  Suggestion 
is  the  initiating  j)art  and  imitation  is  the  resulting 
phase.  Suggestion  is  the  process  whereby  an  idea  or 
mode  of  action  is  presented  to  the  mind  and  accepted 
more  or  less  uncritically.  Imitation  is  the  process  of 
copying  an  idea  or  mode  of  action  and  carrying  it  out 
more  or  less  immediately  in  a  relatively  unchanged 
form.  The  entire  process  constitutes  a  suggestion- 
imitation  phenomenon. 

Suggestion  depends  upon  the  motor  character  of 
ideas,  or  the  dynamic  nature  of  thought.  An  idea 
tends  to  carry  itself  into  action.  An  idea  will  always 
express  itself  in  action  unless  inhibited  by  counter  im- 
pulses, habits,  or  ideas.  If  some  one  merely  mentions 
apple  pie,  even  between  meals,  I  am  quite  certain  to 
feel  hungry  for  apple  pie.  If  some  one  casually  refers 
to  a  baseball  game  that  is  in  progress  near  by  while  I 
am  writing  these  lines,  I  shall  find  myself  uncon- 
sciously laying  aside  the  pen  and  looking  for  my  cap. 
Furthermore,  I  will  go  to  the  game  if  there  are  no  seri- 
ously inhibiting  impulses,  either  instinctive,  habitual, 
or  conscious. 

One's  inmost  thoughts  tend  to  be  expressed.    Bluff- 


Ii8  Social  Psychology 

ing  fails.  A  college  student  who  bluffs  is  soon  recog- 
nized, first  by  his  fellow-students  and  immediate 
friends,  and  then  by  his  instructors.  The  palmist  and 
medium  utilize  the  principle  that  thoughts  tend  to  ex- 
pression. They  maintain  a  continuous  conversation, 
apparently  meaningless  at  times,  and  read  closely  and 
expertly  the  slightest  changes  in  the  facial  expression 
of  the  sitter — and  then  make  good  guesses. 

We  reveal  our  true  selves  often  by  our  unconscious 
attitudes.  When  most  natural,  or  "off  our  guard," 
we  manifest  our  true  nature.  Our  secret  thoughts 
crop  out  unexpectedly  and  unconsciously  to  us.  A 
secret  thought  sooner  or  later  is  bound  to  disclose  it- 
self, often  to  the  owner's  chagrin.  It  is  in  the  off 
guard  moments  that  the  inmost  self  is  bound  to  an- 
nounce itself.  By  these  off  guard  expressions,  we 
are  judged — and  rightly. 

Suggestion  then  is  the  unconscious  or  conscious  in- 
trusion into  the  mind  of  an  idea  which  is  received 
more  or  less  uncritically.  The  motor  character  of  an 
idea  will  do  the  rest — which  is  imitation.  This  defi- 
nition differs  from  that  of  Dr.  Sidis,^  who  holds  that 
the  suggested  idea  meets  at  first  with  more  or  less 
opposition. 

Suggestion  is  direct  or  indirect.  If  direct,  it 
usually  comes  in  the  form  of  a  command,  and  with 
prestige  or  authority.  It  is  illustrated  by  the  parental 
command  to  the  child  who  promptly  obeys,  by  the 
priestly  injunction  to  the  worshipper,  by  the  officer's 
orders  to  the  private,  by  the  hypnotist's  command  to 
his  subject.     Hypnotism  affords  a  productive  field  for 

^The  Psychology  of  Suggestion,  p.  15. 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        119 

the  study  of  direct  suggestion,  but  comes  within  the 
purview  of  abnormal  psychology  and  not  of  social 
psychology.  As  a  social  phenomenon  it  is  as  yet  not 
sufficiently  understood  to  be  commended  as  useful. 
Under  present  conditions,  the  specially  trained  psy- 
chologist is  the  only  person  who  is  entitled  to  use 
hypnotism. 

Indirect  suggestion  operates  unrecognized  by  the 
subject.  It  has  been  described  aptly  by  E.  A.  Ross  as 
"slantwise"  suggestion  and  as  representing  a  flank 
movement,  rather  than  a  frontal  attack  as  in  the  case 
of  direct  suggestion.^  The  adult  mind  is  frequently 
more  apt  to  be  influenced  by  this  method  than  by  any 
other.  The  average  child,  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
sponds more  or  less  readily  to  both  direct  and  indirect 
suggestion.  The  distinction  between  these  two  classes 
of  suggestion  is  simply  in  the  way  in  which  the  sug- 
gested idea  gains  entrance  to  the  mind. 

The  illustrations  of  the  constructive  use  of  indirect 
suggestion  are  manifold.  "When  I  wish  my  young 
brother  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  dining-room  table 
to  sit  up  straight,"  says  a  young  lady,  "I  straighten 
up  suddenly  myself,  without  comment,  without  inter- 
rupting the  conversation,  and  without  even  glancing 
at  my  brother,  and  he  invariably  responds."  This 
simple  case  illustrates  a  far-reaching  application  of 
the  principle  of  indirect  suggestion  in  exerting  a  con- 
structive moral  influence  upon  others.  Many  teachers 
and  parents  nag,  scold,  and  order,  "Don't  do  this," 
or  "Don't  do  that,"  and  children  react  contrarily. 
Other  teachers  and  parents  set  one  moral  example 

'Social  Psychology,  Ch.  II. 


120  Social  Psychology 

after  another  in  a  straightforward  way,  and  children 
are  attracted  and  try  to  follow  the  steady,  strong  pace. 
Didactic  moralizing  is  often  ineffective  because  it  cen- 
ters attention  in  a  negative  way  upon  forbidden  con- 
duct, whereas  a  striking  moral  example  makes  an 
appeal  to  the  heroic  impulses  and  to  the  love  of  action. 
"A  rather  large  boy,  John,  was  transferred  from  the 
seventh  grade  to  the  ungraded  room,  of  which  I  had 
charge,  because  in  the  seventh  grade  'he  would  do 
absolutely  nothing  but  arithmetic  and  drawing,'  "  re- 
ports a  public  school  teacher.  For  a  few  days  John 
was  permitted  to  follow  his  own  inclinations  to  a  large 
extent  and  did  good  work  in  his  two  favorite  subjects 
of  arithmetic  and  drawing,  but  no  other  work.  "Know- 
ing from  the  unpleasant  experiences  of  his  former 
teachers  that  it  would  be  useless  to  insist  on  his  study- 
ing the  despised  geography  or  history  lesson,  I  said 
nothing  about  these  subjects,  but  mentioned  only  the 
two  subjects  which  he  enjoyed.  One  day,  however, 
while  discussing  a  geography  lesson  with  a  group  of 
pupils,  I  asked  John  if  he  would  draw  on  the  black- 
board a  certain  map  for  the  use  of  the  geography 
class  that  day,  complimenting  him  in  the  presence  of 
the  class  upon  his  ability  to  draw.  Each  day  there- 
after I  asked  him  to  draw  some  assignment  in  the 
geography  lesson,  taking  care  that  the  assignments 
would  require  more  and  more  reading  in  geography 
on  his  part.  A  similar  method  was  pursued  in  his- 
tory, with  the  result  that  at  the  close  of  the  year  John 
was  doing  creditable  work  in  both  geography  and  his- 
tory— the  subjects  in  which  he  had  failed  in  the 
seventh  grade."     This  use  of  indirect  suggestion  calls 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        121 

for  limitless  patience  and  mental  dexterity,  but  saves 
boys  to  society. 

A  librarian  noticing  that  the  young  people  were 
reading  low  grade  novels,  pasted  on  the  inside  of  the 
front  and  back  covers  of  these  books  a  statement  to 

this  effect:     "Other  books  of  this  type  are ." 

Here  she  gave  the  names  of  three  or  four  works  of 
fiction,  being  careful  to  mention  books  of  a  little  better 
grade  than  the  one  in  which  the  notice  appeared.  In 
a  short  time  the  young  patrons  of  the  public  library 
were  reading  a  better  grade  of  books.  The  process 
was  repeated,  with  the  result  that  in  a  year's  time  the 
librarian  had  changed  the  type  of  fiction  reading  in 
her  library. 

A  merchant,  having  too  many  slow-pay  customers, 
offered  prizes  for  the  best  essays  on  the  subject: 
"How  to  collect  poor  accounts."  Considerable  talk 
developed  on  the  subject  of  long-term  credit.  As  a 
result,  the  merchant  was  saved  from  bankruptcy. 

In  a  given  public  school,  prejudice  had  developed 
against  a  few  Japanese  and  Chinese  children  who 
were  in  attendance.  The  teacher  announced  a  debate 
upon  the  subject:  Resolved  that  China  has  advanced 
further  democratically  in  the  last  ten  years  than 
Japan.  She  appointed  three  children  on  each  side  of 
the  question  and  asked  one-half  of  the  room  to  gather 
information  for  the  affirmative  debaters  and  the  other 
half  to  work  for  the  negative  speakers.  All  the  pupils 
fell  to  studying  about  the  peoples  of  China  and  Japan 
and  the  struggle  to  secure  democracy  in  each  of  these 
countries.  By  the  day  of  the  debate,  marked  interest 
in  and  sympathy  for  both  the  Chinese  and  the  Japan- 


123  Social  Psychology 

cse  had  developed.  As  a  result  of  this  use  of  indirect 
suggestion,  the  teacher  experienced  no  further  trouble 
because  of  race  prejudice. 

The  powerful  character  of  indirect  suggestion  has 
been  proved  countless  times.  By  its  use  strong- 
minded  and  well-trained  persons  have  been  misled. 
At  Camp  Forrest,  Georgia,  the  men  were  lined  up  one 
day  before  a  row  of  trenches  with  their  gas  masks, 
which  were  to  be  tested,  in  an  alert  position.  At  the 
sound  of  the  klaxon,  guns  were  fired,  and  shells  ex- 
ploded. The  men  had  to  put  on  their  gas  masks  and 
to  stand  around  until  the  smoke  passed  over.  Pres- 
ently several  of  the  men  in  order  gained  the  attention 
of  the  instructors,  and  observed  that  they  could  smell 
gas  and  that  the  masks  were  leaking.  In  a  few  min- 
utes when  the  men  were  permitted  to  remove  their 
masks,  they  learned  to  their  chagrin  that  there  had 
been  no  gas  at  all.  As  in  this  case,  many  of  the  fears 
of  every-day  life  are  ungrounded — the  product  of  in- 
direct suggestion. 

The  unlearned,  especially,  need  to  be  on  their  guard 
against  indirect  suggestion.  An  immigrant  of  several 
years  standing  opened  a  banking  business  in  a  Penn- 
sylvania town.  For  a  time  he  had  little  patronage 
from  the  new,  incoming  aliens  of  his  race.  Presently 
he  purchased  a  large  safe  and  put  it  in  the  show  win- 
dow. At  once  the  money  on  deposit  increased  rapidly 
— not  because  he  had  proved  himself  an  honest  banker, 
but  for  the  reason  that  he  had  a  reliable-appearing 
safe. 

Boys  often  wield  a  strong  influence  over  their 
younger    comrades    by    indirect    suggestion.     Mark 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        123 

Twain  has  revealed  this  situation  perfectly.  For  ex- 
ample, Tom  Sawyer  has  the  unpleasant,  irksome  job 
of  whitewashing  a  fence.  When  a  boy  friend  passes, 
Tom  boasts  of  his  ability  to  whitewash  and  deliber- 
ately daubs  the  fence.  The  sight  causes  the  newcomer 
to  challenge  Tom,  to  seize  the  brush,  and  to  exhibit 
his  own  skill.  By  this  process  the  fence  is  white- 
washed— with  Tom  looking  on  all  the  while.  Tom 
had  "elevated  fence  painting  to  the  rank  of  the  most 
popular  sport  in  the  home  town,"  and  on  a  day  when 
fishing  and  swimming  had  been  scheduled. 

Children  sometimes  influence  their  elders  through 
indirect  suggestion.  When  George  was  visiting  at 
the  home  of  a  playmate,  the  latter' s  mother  removed 
a  pan  of  hot  cookies  from  the  oven.  George  looked 
wistfully  at  the  cookies  and  said :  "My  mother  told 
me  not  to  ask  for  anything."  He  received  a  cookie — 
without  asking. 

Illegitimate  use  of  indirect  suggestion  is  often  made 
by  politicians.  The  public  needs  continually  to  safe- 
guard itself  against  the  indirect  suggestion  that  is  re- 
sorted to  by  demagogues.  In  a  certain  city  the  people 
were  asked  to  vote  bonds  to  construct  an  aqueduct. 
For  some  time  before  the  election  day  there  was  much 
said  in  the  newspapers  about  the  shortage  of  water 
supply  for  the  city,  and  finally  rigid  regulations  were 
made  concerning  the  use  of  the  water.  The  people 
became  scared  and  voted  the  bonds,  but  after  the  elec- 
tion, the  rigid  water  regulations  were  rescinded,  even 
though  the  additional  water  supply  would  not  be  avail- 
able for  years. 

There  are  fortunately  many   wholesome  ways  in 


124  Social  Psychology 

which  indirect  suggestion  may  be  used  in  public  situa- 
tions. When  Roosevelt  was  police  commissioner  in 
New  York  City,  he  received  an  application  for  police 
protection  by  an  anti-Jewish  speaker  who  was  going 
to  hold  a  meeting  in  the  Jewish  section  of  the  city. 
The  request  was  granted,  but  it  did  not  take  the  anti- 
Jewish  demagogue  long  to  appreciate  the  indirect  sug- 
gestion when  he  found  that  he  was  protected  by  a 
detail  of  twenty-five  Jewish  policemen. 

Insinuation  is  a  highly  intellectualized  form  of  indi- 
rect suggestion.  It  may  easily  become  exceedingly 
dangerous,  because  it  stimulates  the  imagination.  If 
in  recommending  a  young  person  for  a  position,  I  con- 
servatively say  that  the  young  man  will  do  fairly  well, 
the  imagination  of  the  employer  immediately  suggests 
several  possible  weaknesses  of  the  candidate,  rather 
than  one  and  that  perhaps  more  or  less  negligible.  By 
the  use  of  the  word  "fairly"  I  arrest  the  attention  of 
the  employer,  and  his  imagination  at  once  is  likely  to 
do  the  young  man  injustice.  Consequently,  if  I  use 
the  term  "fairly,"  I  must  explain  why  or  the  insinua- 
tion will  unjustly  wreck  the  chances  of  my  friend. 

Another  set  of  terms,  namely,  immediate,  mediate, 
and  contra-suggestion  has  been  used  by  Boris  Sidis, 
and  indicates  the  ways  in  which  suggestions  are  trans- 
lated into  action.^  If  a  suggested  idea  is  acted  upon 
promptly  and  in  line  with  its  impulses,  the  phenomenon 
is  immediate  suggestion.  If  time  elapses  and  modifi- 
cations occur,  the  type  is"  called  mediate  suggestion. 
Some  persons  and  many  children  respond  in  an  oppo- 
site way  to  that  which  is  suggested,  and  illustrate  con- 

*Thc  Psychology  of  Suggestion,  p.  23. 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        125 

tra-suggestion.  Contra-suggestion  is  born  usually  of 
an  exaggerated  sense  of  individuality,  and  of  inade- 
quate opportunity  to  learn  the  lessons  of  social  co- 
operation. 

2.  Suggestibility.  Suggestibility  is  the  degree  to 
which  a  person  is  open  to  suggestion.  Normal  sug- 
gestibility includes  fixation  of  attention,  elimination  of 
inhibitory  impulses,  and  immediate  or  mediate  con- 
summation. Abnormal  suggestibility,  which  is  the 
state  of  hysteria  or  of  hypnotism,  is  a  condition  in 
which  the  subject,  within  instinctive  and  habitual 
limits,  is  completely  a  slave  to  the  will  of  the  operator. 

Suggestibility  is  common  to  all  individuals,  but  in 
varying  degrees  under  varying  conditions.  Professor 
Ross*  and  Dr.  McDougalP  have  so  thoroughly  dis- 
cussed these  variations  that  they  need  not  be  presented 
at  length  here. 

( 1 )  Suggestibility  depends  upon  the  degree  of  gre- 
gariousness.  Animals  which  live  in  flocks  or  herds 
are  more  suggestible  than  those  which  forage  alone — 
compare  the  suggestibility  of  the  sheep  with  the  tiger. 
Since  man  is  highly  gregarious,  his  suggestibility  is 
very  pronounced. 

(2)  Suggestibility  depends  upon  racial  nature. 
Southern  races  are  more  suggestible  than  Northern; 
Italians,  than  English.  A  hot  climate  makes  suggesti- 
ble peoples  while  a  frigid  habitat  keeps  the  feelings 
calm,  and  suggestibility  low. 

(3)  Suggestibility  depends  upon  temperament. 
The  emotional  and  nervous  are  more  suggestible  than 

*Social  Psychology,  Ch.  VII. 

'An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  IV. 


126  Social  Psychology 

the  phlegmatic.  Because  of  their  slower  reaction  time, 
the  latter  are  enabled  to  profit  by  the  time  elements 
which  usually  undermine  suggestibility.  He  who 
bides  his  time  is  commonly  more  calculating  than  sug- 
gestible. 

(4)  Suggestibility  depends  upon  sex.  The  auth- 
orities are  generally  agreed  that  men  are  less  suggesti- 
ble than  women,  but  nearly  all  the  authorities  on  the 
subject  are  men.  It  would  be  interesting  to  learn  the 
findings  of  women  investigators.  According  to  the 
available  data,  women  as  a  class  have  not  had  as  wide 
a  range  of  experience  as  men.  As  a  result  women  are 
not  able  to  bring  to  bear  as  many  controls  upon  a 
variety  of  suggestions  as  do  men. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  times  of  financial  craze  men 
go  wild  in  their  desires  to  invest  the  hard-earned  sav- 
ings of  themselves  and  their  wives.  Who  is  more 
suggestible  than  men  in  the  minutes  when  millions  are 
being  made  or  lost  in  the  stock  market  ?  In  such  cases 
the  wife  is  often  the  cooler-headed.  Men  fall  before 
the  suggestibility  of  a  gambling-table,  but  how  many 
wage-earning  women  gamble  their  money  away  on 
pay-night  ? 

(5)  Suggestibility  depends  on  age.  The  young  as 
a  rule  are  more  suggestible  than  the  old.  The  child  and 
adolescent  are  lacking  in  organized  knowledge  with 
which  to  face  suggestions.  Consequently  they  are 
more  suggestible  than  individuals  of  experience,  travel, 
and  organized  information  upon  many  subjects. 

(6)  Suggestibility  depends  on  degree  of  fatigue. 
The  fatigue  toxins  which  circulate  through  the  system 
dull  the  brain  centers  and  decrease  the  ability  to  make 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        127 

rational  judgments.  A  person  is  more  suggestible  in 
tired  than  in  refreshened  hours.  Suggestibility  in- 
creases with  fatigue. 

(7)  Suggestibility  depends  on  lack  of  organized 
knowledge.  He  who  has  a  complete  fund  of  organ- 
ized facts,  drawn  from  all  phases  of  a  given  field,  will 
not  be  suggestible  in  that  connection,  although  he  may 
be  very  suggestible  in  other  matters  upon  which  he  is 
not  thoroughly  informed.  Suggestibility  decreases  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  of  organized  knowledge. 

(8)  Suggestibility  depends  on  the  prestigejQf  the 
sources  of  suggestion.  The  average  person  is  very 
suggestible  in  the  presence  of  a  leading  authority.  Un- 
fortunately, an  individual  with  prestige  is  accepted  as 
an  authority  by  many  persons  on  a  large  number  of 
topics  outside  his  field  of  deserved  prestige.  What  the 
"mayor"  or  the  "bishop"  says  on  subjects  far  removed 
from  the  fields  of  politics  and  religion  is  accepted 
without  question  by  the  victims  of  prestige  sugges- 
tion.    Prestige  slows  up  the  processes  of  reason. 

(9)  Suggestibility  depends  upon  the  degree  of 
crowd  or  group  emotion  that  prevails.  In  a  large 
crowd  it  is  natural  to  feel  insignificant  and  to  act  with 
the  crowd  rather  than  to  follow  the  mandate  of  cogni- 
tion. In  fact,  cognition  may  be  prevented.  Group 
emotion  sways  all  excepting  the  most  intellectually 
stubborn. 

The  least  degree  of  suggestibility  is  found  in  the 
person  of  well-organized  habits,  of  a  vast  range  of 
organized  experiences  and  systematized  knowledge 
which  he  by  habitual  processes  turns  quickly  upon  the 


128  Social  Psychology 

given  suggestion.  But  not  all  suggestions  are  harm- 
ful. To  scrutinize  a  suggestion  may  prove  its  worth 
and  its  acceptability.  All  suggestions  should  be  exam- 
ined as  coolly  and  thoroughly  as  possible  and  rejected 
if  found  of  doubtful  value,  or  accepted  if  meritorious 
— ^and  spread. 

It  is  possible  to  think  overmuch  of  certain  fears  and 
die  of  auto-suggestion,  or  to  concentrate  on  certain 
constructive  ideas  and  save  oneself  from  destruction. 
Sickness  or  health,  pessimism  or  optimism  can  often  be 
explained  in  terms  of  auto-suggestion. 

Suggestion  is  a  powerful  agent  of  either  social  con- 
struction or  destruction.  Society  can  use  it  to  build 
itself  into  an  autocratic  or  a  democratic  state.  Society 
through  its  educators  can  indoctrinate  little  children 
with  almost  any  set  of  ideas  that  is  desired.  The 
power  of  advertisers  or  demagogues  is  puny  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  the  educators  of  children — for  in 
the  last  instance  suggestibility  is  at  the  flood  tide. 

3.  Imitation.  Imitation  is  the  unconscious  or  con- 
scious copying  of  an  act  or  idea.  It  is  the  motor  part 
of  the  suggestion-imitation  process.  Certain  so-called 
imitative  acts  are  simply  a  phase  of  communication  or 
language.  The  boy  who  clenches  his  fist  when  he 
meets  the  clenched  fist  of  another  boy  is  not  imitating 
the  act  of  the  second  youth,  but  is  simply  making  an 
appropriate  response.  The  suitable  response  which  is 
called  forth  happens  to  resemble  the  combative  attitude 
but  is  not  an  imitation  thereof. 

Unconscious  and  conscious  imitation  are  the  count- 
erparts of  indirect  and  direct  suggestion  respectively. 
Unconscious  imitation  is  usually  preceded  by  indirect 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        129 

suggestion,  while  conscious  imitation  is  induced  by 
direct  suggestion. 

Actions  are  more  easily  imitated  than  ideas;  they 
are  especially  subject  to  unconscious  imitation.  When 
attention  is  centered  on  the  conversation  of  an  individ- 
ual, one  is  unconsciously  prone  in  replying  to  copy  the 
gestures  and  mannerisms  of  the  speaker.  Gestures 
are  so  subject  to  unconscious  imitation  that  they 
spread  rapidly  and  may  become  even  nationally  com- 
mon. The  child  is  prone  to  copy  irrationally  the  strik- 
ing, spectacular  actions  of  others.  In  this  way,  the 
motion  picture  that  portrays  stealing,  burglary,  sex 
coarseness  has  a  harmful  effect  upon  the  adolescent. 

"Haven't  you  noticed  that  a  crime  that  is  pictured  in 
the  'movies'  is  usually  punished  before  the  film  is 
ended?"  a  young  delinquent  was  asked  who  attributed 
his  downfall  to  the  motion  picture.  "Oh!  yes,"  he  re- 
plied, "but  after  I  get  the  idea  of  how  to  commit  a 
daring  act  (from  the  'movie'),  I  always  am  willing  to 
take  a  chance  that  I  won't  get  caught." 

The  experience  of  a  lady  of  training,  culture,  and 
refinement  affords  an  illustration  of  unconscious  imi- 
tation of  another  type.  "When  that  stuttering  song, 
'K-K-Katie,'  first  came  out,  my  little  niece  delighted 
to  sing  it,  much  to  my  chagrin.  I  despised  it  and 
abhorred  it.  But  a  few  weeks  later,  much  to  my  own 
amazement  and  her  satisfaction,  my  niece  caught  me 
singing  it,  as  I  set  the  table  for  dinner !" 

Examples  of  conscious  imitation  may  also  be  found 
on  every  hand.  The  daily  observations  of  a  parent, 
or  a  teacher,  are  filled  with  illustrations.  After  a 
baby  twenty  months  old  saw  the  carpenters  smoke 


130  Social  Psychology 

cigarettes,  he  put  a  box  of  crayolas  into  his  coverall 
pockets,  and  "smoked"  crayolas,  imitating  every  move 
and  gesture  of  the  men.  One  day  a  twelve-year-old 
boy  wore  an  overseas  cap,  and  the  next  day  the 
neighborhood  was  swarming  with  overseas  caps — 
made  of  wrapping  paper,  newspapers,  and  other  ma- 
terials. Bergson's  theory  of  the  creative  impulse  is 
announced,  and  at  once  newspaper  writers  and  leaders 
of  clubs  begin  to  expound  it  as  if  they  had  adopted  it. 
The  cash  register  is  invented,  and  is  universally  pur- 
chased by  business  houses.  "Over  the  Top"  is  adver- 
tised, individuals  talk  about  the  book,  and  the  desire 
to  read  it  spreads  over  the  country — culminating  in  a 
tremendous  sale. 

Conscious  imitation  operates  in  any  field  directly  in 
proportion  to  the  alleged  superiority  and  inversely  in 
proportion  to  the  social  distance  of  the  action  or  idea 
that  receives  attention.  The  chief  elements  in  this 
fundamental  law  of  conscious  imitation  have  been 
described  at  length  by  Tarde  and  E.  A.  Ross.  The 
parent  is  imitated  by  the  child ;  the  bishop,  by  the  young 
preacher;  the  scientist,  by  the  laboratory  assistant. 
Society  women  are  the  idols  of  debutantes,  who  in  turn 
dazzle  the  "sub-debs."  Charlie  Chaplin  has  a  clientele 
of  ambitious  imitators.  City  people  are  copied  by 
rural  folk.  The  college  upperclassmen  set  the  pace 
for  the  freshmen.  "Courtesy  comes  from  the  court." 
In  other  words,  there  is  "a  descent  of  example." 

Alleged  rather  than  real  superiority  is  often  the  real 
magnetic  factor.  Real  prestige  is  not  distinguished 
from  acquired  prestige.  Although  the  former  is 
based  on  worth  of  personality  and  the  latter  upon  ex- 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        131 

traneous  factors,  such  as  name,  fortune,  and  mere 
reputation,  the  latter  is  as  powerful  in  influencing  the 
populace  as  the  former.  Even  rational  imitators  are 
frequently  blinded  and  misled  by  a  meteoric  glare.  An 
alleged  brilliant  idea  will  immediately  attract  a  follow- 
ing and  may  gather  great  force.  The  hereditary  rich 
have  said  that  to  inherit  vast  wealth  is  the  greatest 
thing  in  the  world.  They  have  acted  as  if  working 
for  a  livelihood  is  a  servile  status.  Their  theory  is 
that  "life-long  loafing  is  more  worthy  of  respect  than 
life-long  industry,"  or  that  persons  who  have  to  work 
are  "miserable  boobs."  As  E.  A.  Ross  has  pointed 
out,  the  nine-tenths  in  any  society  who  work  have  al- 
lowed the  one-tenth  who  are  born  rich  to  persuade 
them  that  they  are  despicable  because  they  work.  An 
abominable  idea  which  has  been  promulgated  by  an 
alleged  superior  class  has  been  accepted  by  the  real 
superior  classes. 

The  greater  the  superiority,  real  or  alleged,  the 
greater  the  power  to  produce  imitation.  The  colonel 
steps  aside  when  the  general  appears.  All  eyes  turn 
from  the  governor  when  the  presidential  car  arrives. 

The  greater  the  mental  and  social  proximity,  the 
greater  the  imitation.  Lawyers  imitate  eminent  jur- 
ists, but  turn  their  backs  upon  distinguished  poets. 
We  imitate  most  largely  within  our  own  fields  of 
interest.  The  chief  exception  to  this  corollary  of  con- 
scious imitation  is  that  too  close  proximity  may  pro- 
duce too  great  familiarity,  with  a  resultant  decline  in 
imitation.  But  the  elemental  law  of  imitation  is  that 
the  higher  in  prestige — either  real  or  false — is  imitated 
by  the  lower. 


132  Social  Psychology 

There  are  cases,  however,  in  connection  with  uncon- 
scious imitation,  where  the  inferior  are  imitated  by  the 
superior,  e.  g.,  the  softening  of  the  consonants  and  the 
opening  of  the  vowels  by  Southern  white  people  in 
unconscious  imitation  of  the  Negro.®  The  lady  of 
culture  may  temporarily  adopt  a  passing  fad.  The 
worthy  congressman  may  use  a  cheap,  transparent 
trick  of  the  professional  campaigner. 

Nothing  is  imitated  exactly  according  to  copy,  be- 
cause of  the  individual  equation  of  the  imitator  and 
of  the  changes  that  have  occurred  in  the  social  situa- 
tion. "Platonism  produced  no  other  Plato :  Chris- 
tianity yields  no  other  Jesus  nor  Paul."^  Imitation 
always  includes  a  degree  of  modification.  Every  imi- 
tator is  at  the  same  time  an  inventor,  and  every  in- 
ventor is  also  an  imitator.  Since  individuality  always 
colors  or  shapes  every  imitation,  it  is  rarely  pure  imi- 
tation, but  also  invention — invention  often  of  poor 
grade.  Witness  the  difficulty  of  the  child  in  learning 
to  write  well — how  hard  it  is  for  him  to  copy  good 
writing. 

Imitation  is  primarily  a  conserving  factor  in  society. 
It  secures  the  continuance  of  established  ways  of  do- 
ing, and  also,  of  new  methods.  Lincoln  generalizes 
upon  the  subject  of  democracy,  and  through  imitation 
that  theme  passes  from  individual  to  individual,  from 
page  to  page,  decade  to  decade,  race  to  race — and  it  is 
preserved.  In  1876,  Alexander  Bell  invented  the  tele- 
phone, which  through  imitation  has  become  almost  uni- 
versal in  middle  and  upper  class  homes.     Unknown 

'E.  A.  Ross,  Social  Psychology,  p.  150. 

^W.  E.  Hocking,  Human  Nature  and  Us  Remaking,  p.  250.         | 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        133 

inventors  produced  Arabic  numerals,  which  through 
imitation  have  been  commonly  adopted  throughout 
Occidental  civilization. 

Imitation  assumes  three  main  forms  of  social  ex- 
pression, (i)  Fashion  imitation  is  competitive  imi- 
tation of  the  new  and  current.  It  manifests  special 
characteristics  such  as  the  fad  and  the  craze.  (2) 
Convention  imitation  is  non-competitive  copying  of  the 
formal.  (3)  Custom  imitation  is  the  imitation  of 
established  and  ancestral  ideas  and  methods. 

When  put  to  the  test  of  service,  every  imitation  falls 
into  one  of  three  classes — irrational,  rational,  or 
socio-rational.  Many  customs,  but  a  smaller  percent- 
age of  conventions  and  of  fashions,  can  pass  the  test 
of  serviceability.  Upon  careful  scrutiny  many  so- 
called  rational  imitations  are  found  to  be  useful  only 
within  a  small  range  or  to  a  class  of  people,  and  harm- 
ful, dangerous,  or  even  destructive  outside  these  limits. 
Socio-rational  imitations  are  not  only  useful  within 
narrow  social  confines,  but  are  helpful  throughout  the 
range  of  their  influence.  In  the  two  subsequent  chap- 
ters the  distinctions  will  be  made  in  detail  between 
fashion,  convention,  and  custom  imitation,  and  be- 
tween irrational,  rational,  and  socio-rational  imitation. 

PROBLEMS 

(SUGGESTION  AND  SUGGESTIBILITY) 

1.  Why  are  you  suggestible? 

2.  In  what  particulars  are  you  least  suggestible? 

3.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  motor  character  of 
idtzs  t»  suggestibility? 


134  Social  Psychology 

4.  What  rule  may  one  follow  in  driving  a  nail  in 
order  to  avoid  hitting  his  thumb  ? 

5.  What  is  muscle-reading? 

6.  What  is  the  relation  of  so-called  mind-reading 
to  muscle-reading  ? 

7.  Why  does  your  throat  ache  "after  listening  to 
a  speaker  who  forms  his  voice  badly"  ? 

8.  What  is  the  suggestion  in  the  politician's  slo- 
gan :    "Let  us  pass  prosperity  around"  ? 

9.  What  difference  does  it  make  whether  clerks 
ask,  "Shall  we  send  the  package?"  or,  "Shall  we  send 
the  package,  or  will  you  take  it  with  you?" 

10.  From  the  standpoint  of  suggestion,  what  is  the 
difference  between  the  two  signs :  "Keep  off  the 
grass,"  and  "Why  not  keep  on  the  sidewalk?" 

11.  What  suggestion  does  "a  brass-trimmed,  mar- 
ble-faced, mahogany-upholstered  bank"  make  to  an 
immigrant  from  South  Europe? 

12.  What  suggestion  does  a  $6000  limousine  make 
to  the  average  honest  but  poor  man? 

13.  What  suggestion  is  made  by  a  dentist's  sign 
which  shows  a  large  tooth  deeply  imbedded  in  the 
gums  ? 

14.  What  do  the  extravagant  dresses  of  the  wife 
or  daughter  of  a  lawyer  or  a  physician  suggest  to  the 
client  or  patient? 

15.  Why  can  one  easily  walk  a  narrow  plank  that 
lies  on  the  ground,  but  not  one  which  extends  across 
a  deep  chasm  ? 

16.  How  do  you  explain  "the  deadliness  of  the 
innuendo"  ? 

17.  Why    is    faint    praise    more    damaging    than 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        135 

downright  depreciation  ? 

18.  Why  is  it  usually  true  that  the  best  way  to  get 
the  offer  of  a  coveted  position  is  not  to  seem  too  anx- 
ious for  it? 

19.  Is  a  person  suggestible  when  asleep? 

20.  Give  an  original  illustration  of  auto-sugges- 
tion. 

21.  Is  an  underfed  person  more  suggestible  than  a 
well-fed  person? 

22.  Are  men  more  suggestible  than  women? 

23.  Why  is  it  dangerous  for  a  traveller  in  the  Ken- 
tucky mountains  to  pull  out  a  handkerchief  from  his 
hip  pocket? 

24.  How  do  you  account  for  the  moral  influence  of 
certain  teachers,  and  the  lack  thereof  of  others  who 
are  equally  well-intentioned  ? 

25.  What  is  the  danger  in  talks  "on  sex  hygiene 
before  the  segregated  pupils  of  the  public  schools"? 

26.  Is  it  safer  "on  meeting  a  formidable  animal  to 
stand  than  to  run"  ? 

27.  Explain  the  suggestion  in  the  statement,  "He 
protests  too  much." 

28.  When  is  a  person  most  suggestible  ? 

29.  When  is  one  least  suggestible? 

(IMITATION) 

30.  Give  an  original  illustration  of  unconscious 
imitation. 

31.  Illustrate:  Imitation  is  a  conserving  factor  in 
society. 

32.  Illustrate:  "We  are  most  imitative  in  the 
things  not  the  object  of  conscious  attention." 


136  Social  Psychology 

33.  Explain :     Imitation  is  a  vital  factor  in  social 
progress. 

34.  Explain:     "Everybody    in    the    same    village 
walks  on  an  average  at  the  same  rate  of  speed." 

35.  Explain  the  statement  that  sentiment  is  "more 
electric  than  opinion." 

36.  Is  an  ideal  a  better  religious  nucleus  than  a 
dogma  ? 

37.  Should  there  be  censorship  of  motion  pictures? 

38.  Why  is  the  moral  responsibility  of  the  novelist 
great  ? 

39.  Does  art  need  censorship  more  than  science? 

40.  Who  is  the  more  dangerous  to  society,  the  dis- 
seminator of  wrong  ideals,  or  of  wrong  opinions? 

41.  Explain:     "The  vortical  suction  of  our  popu- 
lation is  stronger  than  ever  before." 

42.  How    do    you    explain    psychologically    that 
"nothing  succeeds  like  success"? 

43.  Explain  from  the  standpoint  of  social  psychol- 
ogy that  "nothing  succeeds  like  success"  ? 

44.  Which  is  imitated  the  more  easily: 

( 1 )  Indolence  or  ambition  ? 

(2)  A  hopeful  or  a  fearful  attitude? 

(3)  Yawning  or  sneezing? 

(4)  Saving  or  spending? 

(5)  Vices  or  virtues? 


READINGS 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Mental  Development,  Chs.  VI,  IX,  XII. 
Binet,  A.,  La  suggeslibilite. 

Carver,  T.  "N.,  (editor),  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XXI. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  II. 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        137 

Davis,  Jr.,  M.  M.,  Psychological  Interpretations  of  Society,  Chs. 

IX,  X. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  X. 

Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  XIII. 

Fry,  E.,  "Imitation  as  a  Factor  in  Human  Progress,"  Contemp. 

Rev.,  LV :  658-77- 
Gowin,  E.  B.,  The  Executive  and  His  Control  of  Men,  Ch.  XII. 
Gumplowicz,  L.,  "La  suggestion  sociale,"  Riv.  ital.  di  social.,  IV: 

545-55- 
Howard,  G.  E.,  Social  Psychology,  (syllabus).  Sect.  II. 
Keatinge,  M.  W.,  Suggestion  in  Imitation. 
McDougall,    William,    An    Introduction    to    Social    Psychology, 

(eighth  edit.),  pp.  96-107,  325-45- 
Miinsterberg,  H.,  On  the  Witness  Stand,  pp.  96-107. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  II. 

Social  Control,  Chs.  XIII,  XIV. 

Schmidkunz,  H.,  Psychologie  der  Suggestion. 
Tarde,  Gabriel,  The  Laws  of  Imitation. 

Social  Laws. 

In  Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XXI. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  Ch.  VIII. 


Chapter  VII. 

SUGGESTION-IMITATION  PHENOMENA 
(Continued) 


4.  Fashion  Imitation.  A  fashion  is  a  new  way  of 
acting  or  thinking  which  only  a  small  percentage  of 
the  group  has  been  able  to  choose  because  of  the 
attendant  competition  and  other  limitations.  The  field 
of  fashion  ranges  all  the  way  from  breakfast  foods 
or  styles  of  dress  to  philosophic  theories.  If  mark- 
edly different  from  the  conventional  and  customary,  a 
fashion  is  classified  as  freakish.  If  it  is  adopted  some- 
what generally  for  a  period  of  time,  the  competitive 
elements  tend  to  disappear,  and  it  becomes  a  conven- 
tion. If  it  proves  widely  useful  and  stands  the  test 
of  time  it  becomes  a  custom.  Herein  are  the  bases  of 
fashion  imitation,  convention  imitation,  and  custom 
imitation. 

The  social  psychology  of  fashion  reveals  eleven  dif- 
ferent elements.^  (i)  There  is  the  imitation  process 
itself  through  which  fashion  becomes  current.  By 
imitating  the  example  of  others,  the  individual  follows 
in  the  path  along  which  others  are  going;  his  Interest 
in  social  adaptation  is  satisfied;  and  union  with  other 
individuals  of  his  class  is  established.^     The  forces  of 

'Six  of  these  factors  have  been  presented  by  E.  A.  Ross  in  his 
Social  Psychology,  Ch.  VI,  and  in  unpubHshed  lectures. 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        139 

unconscious  and  conscious  imitation  lead  one  easily  and 
often  against  his  common  sense  to  adopt  the  prevaiHng 
fashion. 

(2)  The  individual  is  frequently  drawn  into  the 
fashion  vortex  through  the  fear  of  social  disapproval 
if  he  does  not  conform.  Large  numbers  of  people 
remonstrate  against  a  new  fashion,  but  presently  they 
are  seen  to  have  adopted  it — because  of  social  pressure 
unwisely  exerted.  It  is  now  an  axiom  among  many 
persons  that  one  might  as  well  be  out  of  the  world  as 
out  of  fashion.  This  pressure  is  especially  powerful 
upon  women  in  matters  of  dress.  Men  continually 
feel  and  give  in  to  its  force. 

(3)  An  opposite  element  is  the  desire  for  individual 
differentiation.  The  desire  to  give  oneself  an  individ- 
ual stamp  and  the  impulses  toward  variation  and  social 
contrast  are  gratified  through  fashions.  A  new  mode, 
especially  in  dress,  which  permits  endless  slight  varia- 
tions is  at  once  at  a  premium.  No  one  wishes  to  be 
considered  mediocre  or  like  the  average.  Everyone 
believes  himself  to  be  different  from  the  mass,  and 
fashion  enables  him  to  flatter  this  belief.  Fashion  is 
used  to  gain  for  oneself  the  appearance,  although  not 
the  reality,  of  genuine  individualitv.  A  shrewd  ob- 
server has  remarked  that  it  is  feathers  which  set  off 
peacocks,  turkeys,  pheasants,  and  roosters  from  one 
another,  and  that  without  the  differentiating  feathers, 
these  birds  would  present  a  similar  appearance.  It  is 
erroneouslv  assumed  that  the  adoption  of  a  fashion 
automaticallv  raises  one  to  a  higher  social  plane  than 
that  occupied  by  non-conformers. 

*Georg  Simmel,  "Fashion,"  International  Quarterly,  X:i33  S. 
Cf.    Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  pp.  244  flf. 


140  Social  Psychology 

Fashion  not  only  unites,  but  it  separates.  It  satis- 
fies at  one  and  the  same  time  the  demand  for  unity 
and  for  segregation.  It  meets  simultaneously  the 
needs  of  class  unity  and  of  individual  distinction. 
Fashion  inequality  often  defies  democracy.  When  so- 
cial status  is  determined  by  one's  ability  to  waste 
money  on  expensive  and  useless  fashions,  democracy  is 
undermined  and  patriotism  is  challenged.  In  another 
way  fashion  imitation  enables  the  lower  classes  to  imi- 
tate closely  the  higher  groups,  and  to  approach  them 
in  appearance.  Fashion  imitation  is  a  leveller-up,  and 
hence  to  a  degree  democratising.  Even  subject  peo- 
ples rise  through  imitation,  chiefly  fashion,  toward  the 
levels  of  their  ruling-nations. 

(4)  Fashion  thrives  upon  novelty.  In  those  coun- 
tries, of  course,  where  customs  are  worshipped,  the 
novel  gains  prestige  with  difficulty.  But  where  fash- 
ion imitation  has  gained  standing,  the  prestige  of  the 
new  takes  on  an  unwarranted  glamor.  The  impor- 
tance that  is  attached  to  the  new  increases  concomi- 
tantly with  the  development  of  fashion  imitation  itself 
— one  movement  accelerates  the  other. 

(5)  Invention  is  a  necessary  fashion  antecedent. 
Without  invention  there  would  be  no  new  things  to 
imitate  and  to  become  fashionable.  Every  epoch  of 
fashion  imitation  is  also  a  period  of  invention.  It  is 
true  that  many  inventions  do  not  extend  very  far  be- 
neath the  surface  and  consequently  are  often  worse 
than  useless.  But  out  of  much  inventing,  an  occasional 
invention  will  prove  valuable,  and  through  the  sifting 
processes  of  time  will  become  separated  from  the 
passing  fashions  of  the  day  and  receive  permanent 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        141 

adoption. 

(6)  Reputability  furthers  fashion.  The  current 
knowledge  that  people  are  imitating  a  new  style,  or 
are  ready  to  do  so,  gives  the  fashion  a  first-class  en- 
dorsement. Many  fashions  live  for  a  time  entirely 
upon  reputation  and  prestige.  The  fact  that  one's  ac- 
quaintances have  endorsed  or  adopted  a  new  idea  im- 
plies that  this  idea  must  have  worth.  When  a  petition 
is  presented  for  my  signature,  I  will  sign  more  readily 
If  the  names  of  some  of  my  friends  are  already  at- 
tached. The  larger  the  number  of  such  names  upon 
the  list,  the  more  readily  do  I  add  my  name.  Each  of 
my  acquaintances,  however,  may  have  signed  the  peti- 
tion because  some  one  else  had  done  so,  and  the  first 
signer  may  have  been  moved  merely  by  the  importu- 
nity of  the  bearer  of  the  petition,  through  misunder- 
standing, or  by  purely  personal  or  selfish  motives ! 

(7)  Fashion  thrives  upon  the  spectacular.  Bril- 
liancy, high  lights,  flash  and  fire — these  are  conspira- 
tors with  fashion,  because  they  give  prestige  in  the 
eyes  of  many,  because  they  attract  widespread  atten- 
tion of  the  whole  multitude.  When  the  hat  with  pea- 
cock plumage  passes  down  the  aisle  there  is  a  craning 
of  all  necks  and  a  whispering  of  tongues,  wise  and 
silly.  Sensationalism  in  fashion  also  gives  individ- 
uality and  distinction — the  value  of  which  is  overesti- 
mated by  the  sensationalist.  The  preacher  with  the 
spectacular  methods  captures  the  crowds  and  personal 
distinction. 

(8)  The  commercialized  activities  of  designers  and 
promoters  strengthen  the  reign  of  fashion.  There 
are  people  who  have  become  expert  in  creating  new 


142  Social  Psychology 

styles  which  appeal  to  the  fashion  pace-setters  and 
clientele.  Before  one  style  has  been  put  on  the  market, 
others  in  the  same  commercial  field  are  being  designed. 

Then  there  are  the  professionals  who  work  in  con- 
junction with  the  fashion  designers  and  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  create  wants — both  false  and  true — that 
will  drive  people  to  buy  the  new  fashions  which  the 
designers  have  prepared.  Many  advertisements  and 
fashion  shows  produce  a  wasteful,  competitive  con- 
sumption of  goods.  Fashion  shows  also  stim.ulate 
many  people  to  buy  beyond  their  means  and  thus 
undermine  thrift.  Fashion  shows  also  create  unsatis- 
fied and  unsatisfiable  wants  in  the  minds  of  the  less 
fortunate  classes.  The  worthy  and  unworthy  alike, 
where  economic  tension  exists,  are  made  dissatisfied  to 
an  uncontrollable  degree.  The  walking  fashion  plates 
are  a  chief  cause  of  the  spirit  of  Bolshevism.  A  ten 
thousand  dollar  motor  car  is  handsome  and  elegant, 
but  creates  social  unrest  wherever  it  moves. 

The  professional  promoter  of  fashion  must  succeed 
in  creating  an  atmosphere  of  expectancy  and  of  favor- 
able anticipation  among  the  people  who  can  afford  to 
buy  and  also  among  those  persons  in  the  class  just 
below  those  who  are  financially  able.  For  this  reason, 
the  professionalist  often  uses  the  serial,  accumulative 
advertisement — and  the  unsuspecting  public  uncon- 
sciously begins  a  campaign  of  talk  and  of  publicity  in 
behalf  of  the  new  mode  that  is  about  to  appear. 

(9)  Fashion  appeals  to  freedom.  The  cry  of  every 
new  political  party  is:  Be  free  from  the  "bosses"  of 
the  old  parties.  The  new  religious  sect  sends  out  the 
invitation :     Come  out  from  the  yoke  of  past  religious 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        143 

dogmatism.  Every  economic  panacea  flings  out  the 
banner:  Free  yourself  from  the  slavery  of  the  in- 
dustrial master  class.  The  call  to  freedom  which  new 
movements  of  all  types  use  in  order  to  win  the  popu- 
lace makes  a  fundamental  appeal  to  the  individualistic 
impulses  of  human  nature.  So  strong  is  this  pull  that 
people  rush  to  the  support  of  this  or  that  propaganda 
without  carefully  examining  its  intrinsic  nature.  The 
call  to  be  free  from  old  inconveniences  or  slaveries 
prevents  people  from  seeing  the  yokes  of  serfdom 
which  may  be  hidden  in  the  new. 

(10)  The  counter  stimulations  of  fashion  enthus- 
iasts increase  fashion  imitation.  The  vicious  circle  of 
fashion  imitation  should  be  thoroughly  understood  by 
all  the  devotees  of  fashion.  The  pace-setter^  leads  off 
with  a  new  style  in  a  given  field.  Other  persons  im- 
mediately follow — in  order  to  be  taken  for  the  pace- 
setter and  to  share  in  his  prestige.  Still  others  copy — 
in  order  not  to  be  conspicuous.  As  soon  as  the  mode 
becomes  somewhat  widely  adopted,  the  originators  of 
it  and  the  pace-setters  devise  and  introduce  a  new  style 
by  definitely  modifying  the  initial  fashion  or  by  turn- 
ing to  an  opposite  extreme.  They  set  the  pace  in  a 
new  direction,  and  immediately  discard  the  original 
fashion.  In  this  manner  fashion  imitation  acquires 
a  faster  and  faster  speed.  The  pace-followers  try  to 
overtake  the  pace-setters,  while  the  latter  wildly  seek 
a  new  style  in  order  to  "sidestep"  the  pursuing  multi- 
tude. To  this  process,  which  always  assumes  insane 
and  wasteful  proportions,  E.  A.  Ross  has  applied  the 

'See  the  discussion  by  E.  A.  Ross,  Social  Psychology,  pp.  99, 
103- 


144  Social  Psychology 

term,  "social  racing."  Perhaps  "fashion  racing" 
would  be  more  accurate.  The  high  cost  of  living  is 
partly  due  to  fashion  racing.  Many  articles  that  peo- 
ple buy  are  purchased,  not  because  they  are  needed  or 
because  they  are  beautiful,  but  because  neighbors  or 
friends  own  similar  fashionable  goods.  Fashion  rac- 
ing with  its  process  of  endless  counter  stimulations 
unduly  accentuates  fashion. 

(ii)  The  spirit  of  progress  gives  life  to  fashion. 
Progressiveness  is  willingness  to  take  chances  with  a 
new  idea  or  method.  Progressiveness  expects  that 
some  new  methods  will  prove  useless,  but  in  order  to 
discover  worth-while  inventions,  it  will  take  wide 
risks.  Because  of  this  risk-taking  on  the  part  of  pro- 
gressiveness, many  fashions  secure  patronage. 

^  The  craze  and  fad  are  exhibitions  of  exaggerated 
fashion  imitation.  The  craze  is  characterized  by  a 
large  degree  of  excitement.  Under  such  a  spell,  peo- 
ple will  temporarily  adopt  almost  any  irrational 
scheme.  If  the  necessary  excitement  can  be  created, 
the  result  in  terms  of  imitation  can  be  predicted  with 
a  fair  degree  of  accuracy.  Financial  speculation  has 
been  perhaps  the  chief  field  of  crazes.  At  this  writing 
the  morning  newspaper  on  my  desk  contains  several 
quarter-page  advertisements  of  oil  wells  that  "are 
about  to  produce."  I  notice  that  these  oil  wells  are 
more  than  a  thousand  miles  distant — where  I  cannot 
investigate  them — and  that  the  drills  are  going  down 
and  the  prices  of  shares  are  rapidly  rising.  Within 
ten  days  the  price  of  a  share  of  stock  will  positively  go 
up  from  three  to  five  cents  or  from  fifteen  to  one  hun- 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        145 

dred  dollars.  In  fact,  I  am  told  that  a  gusher  may  be 
struck  at  any  moment,  in  which  case  the  value  of 
stocks  will  increase  beyond  the  most  generous  antici- 
pations and  I,  if  I  own  sufficient  shares,  will  find  my- 
self a  millionaire.  The  very  prospect  excites  me. 
Then  I  remember  how  many  drills  have  gone  down 
without  reaching  oil,  how  many  persons  have  invested 
their  money  in  oil  and  lost,  how  little  I  really  know 
about  the  proposed  investment, — and  then  my  excite- 
ment passes  and  I  continue  with  the  writing  of  this 
chapter. 

Excitement  breeds  crazes,  not  only  in  the  financial 
world  of  speculation,  but  in  other  phases  of  life,  par- 
ticularly the  religious.  As  the  greatest  financial  craze 
perhaps  was  that  which  occurred  about  1720,  when 
the  slow-moving,  conservative  English  mind  was 
seized  with  the  excitement  attendant  upon  the  financial 
prospects  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  so  the  greatest 
religious  craze  was  probably  that  known  as  Millerism, 
which  developed  in  the  United  States  between  1840 
and  1845.  William  Miller  went  about  preaching  the 
end  of  the  world.  As  a  result  of  a  large  number  of 
addresses,  he  secured  thousands  of  followers  who, 
upon  the  appointed  day,  donned  their  ascension  robes 
and  went  out  into  the  open  fields.  Although  the  end 
of  the  world  did  not  come  at  the  appointed  time,  a 
new  date  was  set  and  the  undaunted  followers  of 
William  Miller  increased  in  numbers. 

The  "pogroms"  in  Russian  Poland  under  the  re- 
gime of  the  Czars  illustrate  crazes.  The  peasants  be- 
come frantic  under  the  extortions  of  the  Jews,  who  in 
turn  have  been  compelled  to  pay  large  sums  of  money 


146  Social  Psychology 

regularly  to  the  Russian  authorities  for  relatively 
meager  privileges.  In  blind  rage  a  "pogrom"  is 
started.  Often  aroused  against  the  Jews  by  the  Rus- 
sian authorities  and  instigated  in  part  by  the  Church, 
the  peasants  start  to  wreak  vengeance  upon  the  Jews, 
the  class  directly  above  them,  and  who  they  are  easily 
led  to  believe  are  the  cause  of  all  the  harsh  conditions 
of  peasant  life.  But  the  "pogrom"  does  not  stop  with 
destruction  of  property.  The  frenzied  peasant-mobs 
tear  helpless  children  from  helpless  parents  and  bru- 
tally slay  them  before  the  eyes  of  those  parents.  The 
aged  are  mercilessly  tortured  and  then  killed.  The  ex- 
citement spreads  from  village  to  village,  and  then  after 
a  few  days  subsides,  and  the  peasants  return  to  their 
accustomed  tasks,  without  having  improved  their  con- 
ditions in  the  slightest. 

The  fad  is  a  closely  related  phenomenon  which 
arises  in  connection  with  peculiar  forms  of  novelty, 
rather  than  with  excitement.  Something  conspicu- 
ously new  and  having  a  semblance  of  attractiveness 
appears,  and  because  of  the  prestige  which  is  accorded 
to  novelty  and  to  superficial  attractiveness,  people 
adopt  the  innovation,  without  considering  its  worth. 
Any  fashion  of  the  hour  that  is  based  on  novelty  will 
serve  as  an  example  of  fad. 

Every  urban  community  in  our  country  at  any  time 
harbors  several  fads,  ranging  from  purely  local  inter- 
est to  nation-wide  appeal.  But  groups  are  exceed- 
ingly fickle  in  their  courtship  of  fads.  One  month 
popularity  may  center  upon  the  carrying  of  kewpies 
upon  automobiles;  a  few  months  later  the  kewpies  will 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        147 

be  displaced  by  the  American  flag,  and  then  by  AUied 
flags;  shortly  all  have  disappeared.  The  Charlie 
Chaplin  fads  have  passed  in  waves  over  the  country, 
rivalled  only  by  Mary  Pickford  curls,  and  jokes  on 
the  Ford. 

The  social  psychology  of  dress  and  clothing  throws 
additional  light  on  the  nature  of  fashion  imitation. 
Among  animals  passive  adaptation  results  in  the 
growth  of  feathers,  fur,  or  other  protective  covering 
of  the  body.  Protection  is  the  primary  need  which 
clothing  serves. 

Sex  differentiation,  for  example,  in  the  feathers  of 
birds,  indicates  another  purpose  of  body  covering — 
adornment.  The  female  bird  chooses  her  mate.  The 
males  with  the  most  beautiful  plumage  and  the  singing 
voice  are  chosen.  Males  without  feathers  that  are  re- 
splendent possess  less  chance  of  sex  selection,  fail  to 
reproduce,  and  die  out. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  human  scale  clothing  serves 
the  same  two  purposes  as  among  the  higher  animals 
— protection  and  sex-ornamentation.  Passive  adapta- 
tion is  partially  supplanted  by  active  adaptation,  and 
natural  feathers  and  fur  are  displaced  by  clothing  that 
is  made  from  the  skins  and  furs  of  animals  and  from 
fibrous  plants.  Feathers  are  artificially  used  for  sex 
and  prestige  ornamentation.  The  male,  who  is  chosen 
by  the  female,  resorts  to  all  sorts  of  ingenious  though 
often  painful  devices  in  order  to  increase  his  attract- 
iveness. Ornamental  scars  are  made  upon  the  dark- 
skinned  body.  With  the  light-skinned  early  peoples 
of  the  temperate  zones  scarification,  not  easily  dis- 


148  Social  Psychology 

cernible,  is  displaced  by  tattooing.  Indigoes  and  simi- 
lar dark  substances  are  used  to  make  permanent  orna- 
mentations upon  the  white  skin.  Ornamental  pur- 
poses are  further  served  by  attaching  rings,  through 
perforations,  to  the  ears,  nose,  lips,  and  by  fastening 
them  around  the  arms  and  ankles.  Fantastic  forms 
of  male  hair  dress  develop  and  beads  of  all  colors  are 
used  to  enhance  bodily  beauty. 

With  the  development  of  clothing  for  protective  and 
ornamental  purposes  a  third  causal  element  appeared 
— modesty.  Ornamental  clothing  often  tended,  and 
still  does,  to  sex  stimulation.  Consequently,  clothing 
not  only  caused  modesty,  but  modesty  in  clothing  ac- 
quired a  tangible  status.  Three  purposes,  thus,  are 
served  by  clothing — protection,  ornamentation  (chiefly 
on  sex  planes)  and  modesty. 

With  the  rise  of  wife-capture,  the  warrior-state, 
and  the  patriarchal  family,  man  became  the  wooer  and 
woman  the  wooed.  When  woman  was  sought  for  by 
male  courting  and  when  her  restricted  sphere  of  work 
with  its  monotony  and  routine  demanded  variation, 
she  concentrated  attention  on  her  clothing  not  primar- 
ily from  the  protective  or  modesty  bases,  but  for  pur- 
poses of  ornamentation.  The  more  beautiful  she 
could  make  her  appearance,  the  greater  her  chances  of 
attracting  the  competitive  glances  of  suitors.  Woman 
has  assumed  a  heavy  load  of  sex-ornamentation.  This 
l)urden  has  weighed  her  down  and  greatly  hindered  her 
mental  progress. 

Among  the  hereditary  leisure  classes  husbands  some- 
times encourage  their  wives;  and  parents,  their  daugh- 
ters to  dress  luxuriously — for  mere  display  purposes. 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        149 

By  such  conspicuous  and  wasteful  consumption  of 
goods,  husbands  and  parents  are  enabled  to  advertise 
their  wealth.  Thereby  women  are  unwisely  encour- 
aged to  place  far  more  emphasis  upon  the  ornamental 
than  upon  the  more  substantial  elements  of  protection 
and  modesty.  There  is  truth  in  the  assertion  that 
man,  among  certain  classes,  has  made  woman  an  orna- 
ment and  kept  her  in  a  doll's  house.  The  display 
emphasis,  on  occasion,  becomes  so  exaggerated  that 
the  protection  in  clothing  which  is  demanded  by  health 
considerations  is  openly  ignored,  while  sex  immodesty 
is  vulgarly  flaunted. 

So  extensively  has  woman  of  the  hereditary  leisure 
classes  given  attention  to  dress  (ornament)  as  dis- 
tinguished from  clothing  (protection  and  modesty), 
that  some  women  secure  the  height  of  enjoyment  out 
of  surpassing  other  women  in  gorgeousness  of  attire. 
At  an  afternoon  gathering  of  leisure  class  women, 
each  subtly  observes  how  the  others  are  gowned.  At 
a  men's  club,  on  the  other  hand,  men's  wearing  apparel 
is  rarely  a  topic  of  conversation,  since  matters  of  more 
objective  interest,  such  as  business  or  politics,  engage 
the  attention. 

Men  have  not  entirely  escaped  from  the  customs  of 
primeval  days  when  they  were  the  ornamented  sex. 
Kings  and  courtiers  still  dress  in  pompous  regalia. 
The  Scotch  kilt  is  a  survival  of  early  male  embellish- 
ments. Members  of  large  fraternal  orders  indulge 
yearly  or  biennially  in  a  reversion  to  the  days  of  the 
gorgeous  plumage  of  the  male.  On  such  occasions  the 
women  are  outdone. 

The   present   circumstances   attendant   upon   dress 


150  Social  Psychology 

have  brought  to  sane-minded  women  several  problems. 
( I )  The  question  of  economic  cost  is  serious  when  so 
much  stress  is  placed  upon  expensive  materials,  upon 
having  a  new  gown  for  every  formal  occasion,  and 
when  styles  swing  from  one  extreme  to  another  in 
rapid  succession.  It  has  been  shrewdly  observed  that 
the  cost  of  a  "fashionable  woman"  is  beyond  compu- 
tation. It  has  been  well  said  that  a  marriage  pro- 
posal means  much  more  today  (when  spring  and  fall 
hats  each  cost  twenty-five  dollars)  than  formerly 
(when  the  young  wife  wore  a  shawl  for  head  cover- 
ing, which  she  had  made  herself), 

(2)  The  mandates  of  modern  fashions  in  dress 
have  enslaved  woman.  Women  are  often  nonplused 
by  the  search  to  find  that  which  is  in  style  and  yet 
pleases.  A  tremendous  amount  of  energy  is  expended 
in  the  consumption  of  dress  goods.  This  energy 
might  well  be  released  in  productive  mental  activities. 

(3)  The  rapid  shifting  in  styles  and  the  prestige  of 
the  mere  novel  arbitrarily  set  aside  a  beautiful  style 
before  it  has  had  a  chance  to  be  fully  appreciated.  If 
the  struggle  were  for  increasingly  beautiful  clothing,  a 
worthy  cause  would  be  honored.  But  under  commer- 
cialized control  there  is  little  if  anv  increase  from  year 
to  year  in  the  artistic  quality  of  dress. 

(4)  The  extremes  in  woman's  dress  continually 
verge  on  the  immodest  and  sexually  vulgar.  It  is 
these  extremes  which  attract  the  most  attention  and 
which  cast  undue  discredit  upon  the  sex.  Newspapers 
give  wide  publicity  to  these  abnormalities,  which  with- 
out publicity  would  tend  to  disappear. 

(5)  Efforts  by  women  to  establish  a  Dress  Reform 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        151 

League  have  never  been  far-reaching.  Such  a  protec- 
tion against  the  tyrannies  of  fashion  in  dress  is  needed, 
but  attempts  of  this  order  have  proved  futile  because 
of  woman's  lack  of  experience  in  organizing,  her  lack 
of  training  in  doing  good  team-work,  the  tendency  of 
leaders  of  dress  reform  to  impose  "mannish"  styles 
of  clothing  upon  women,  and  the  failure  to  get  nation- 
wide action. 

There  are  many  evidences  that  fashions  in  all  things 
which  are  so  subject  are  changing  more  rapidly  than 
ever.  The  pace  is  increasing,  due  to  improved  meth- 
ods of  communication,  the  development  of  a  "hustle" 
civilization,  and  inexpensive  methods  of  making  imi- 
tations of  all  kinds.  With  the  return  of  peace,  there 
has  come  in  certain  quarters  increased  fashion  frenzy. 
A  buyer  for  a  well-known  American  dry  goods  house 
reports  to  the  writer  that  he  is  unable  to  buy  goods 
expensive,  extravagant,  and  wasteful  enough  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  wealthy  patrons  of  his  store. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  opposition  to  the  tyranny 
of  fashion  is  gaining  ground.  Not  only  is  there  an 
increasing  number  of  independent  voters  in  our  nation 
but  there  are  also  growing  groups  of  independent 
thinkers  with  reference  to  fashion  absurdities.  In 
the  lead  are  the  business  woman  and  the  athletic 
woman,  but  the  former  sometimes  hinders  the  cause 
by  her  mannishness  and  the  latter  sometimes  by  her 
slouchiness  and  disregard  of  the  esthetic.  There  are, 
fortunately,  increasing  numbers  of  individuals  who 
place  worth  of  character  above  willingness  to  become 
slaves  to  fashion  imitation. 


152  Social  Psychology 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  said  that  the  chief  merit 
of  fashion  is  that  it  contributes  to  progress.  Fashions 
are  the  experimental  laboratory  of  progress.  As  the 
chemist  tries  a  hundred  experiments  before  he  finds 
a  useful  new  combination  of  elements,  so  society  tries 
out  a  hundred  new  ideas  or  styles  in  order  to  find 
one  fashion  of  utility.  Every  invention  in  any  field 
must  stand  the  test  of  fashion  imitation.  If  it  is 
worth  while,  as  now  and  then  is  the  case,  it  becomes 
widely  adopted,  its  adoption  achieves  a  degree  of  sta- 
bility, it  passes  from  a  competitive  to  a  non-competi- 
tive basis,  and  changes  its  status  from  the  fashion- 
able to  the  conventional. 


PROBLEMS 

(FASHION  IMITATION) 

1.  Why  has  Paris  been  the  center  from  which 
new  fashions  in  woman's  dress  have  emanated? 

2.  Is  it  true  that  nothing  is  fashionable  until  it 
be  deformed? 

3.  How  do  you  account  for  the  fact  that  fashions 
tend  to  the  extreme? 

4.  Is   it   true   that   any   particular   fashion   "can 
never  be  generally  in  vogue"  ? 

5.  Is  the  cash  register  fashionable? 

6.  Illustrate  the  difference  between  fashion  and 
progress. 

7.  Do   fashions  change  now  more  rapidly  than 
formerly  ? 

8.  Does  extensive  fashion  imitation  refine  or  de- 
base one's  tastes? 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        153 

9.  Why  is  the  high  gloss  of  a  gentleman's  high 
hat  considered  more  beautiful  than  "a  similarly  high 
gloss  on  a  thread-bare  sleeve"? 

10.  Why  is  a  given  fashion  often  considered  beau- 
tiful when  in  style,  and  unsightly  when  out  of  style? 

11.  Are  things  beautiful  in  proportion  to  their 
cost? 

12.  Who  are  the  more  subject  to  fashion  changes, 
persons  guided  by  their  feelings,  or  by  their  reason? 
Why? 

13.  Explain:  "One  might  as  well  be  dead  as  out 
of  fashion." 

14.  "Who  are  more  responsible  for  fashion  ab- 
surdities, the  women  who  wear  them,  or  the  men  who 
are  pleased  by  them?" 

15.  Do  women  give  particular  attention  to  dress 
in  order  to  please  themselves,  other  women,  or  the 
men? 

16.  To  whom  are  the  fashion  shows  the  greater 
benefit,  the  merchant  or  the  customers  ? 

17.  Who  are  to  be  blamed  the  more  for  useless 
fashion  expenditures,  the  consumers  racing  for  dis- 
tinction or  the  manufacturers  and  merchants  racing 
for  profits? 

18.  How  would  you  explain  the  fact  that  there  is 
less  rivalry  in  consumption  of  goods  "among  farmers 
than  among  people  of  corresponding  means  in  the 
city"? 

19.  Why  is  it  easier  to  save  money  in  the  country 
than  in  the  city? 

20.  Is  it  true  that  the  standard  of  living  rises  so 
rapidly  with  every  increase  in  prosperity  "that  there 


154  Social  Psychology 

is  scarcely  any  let-up  in  the  economic  strain"  ? 

21.  Give  an  illustration  of  a  craze  that  you  have 
observed. 

22.  Who  are  more  susceptible  to  craze,  "a  hope- 
ful, prosperous  people"  or  "a  hopeless,  miserable 
people"  ? 

23.  Is  a  dynamic  society  more  craze-ridden  than 
one  that  moves  along  the  lines  of  custom? 

24.  Why  do  many  young  men  upon  graduating 
from  college  "engage  in  moustache  contests"? 

25.  Make  a  list  of  the  five  leading  fads  in  your 
community  at  the  present  time  ? 


READINGS 

Aria,  E.,  "Fashion,  its  Survivals  and  Revivals,"  Fortnightly  Rev., 

104 :  930-37- 
Biggs,  A.  H.,  "What  is  'Fashion'  ?  "  Nineteenth  Cent.,  XXXIII : 

235-48. 
Foley,  C.  H.,  "Fashion,"  Econ.  Jour.  Ill:  458-74. 
Howard,  G.  E.,  Social  Psychology,  (syllabus).  Sect.  XI. 
Linton,  E.  L.,  "The  Tyranny  of  Fashion,"  Forum,  III :  59-68. 
Patrick,  G.  T.  W.,  "The  Psychology  of  Crazes,"  Popular  Science 

Mon.,  LVII :  285-94. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  VI,  XI. 
"Acquisitive    Mimicry,"   Amcr.   Jour,    of  Sociol.,   XXI : 

433-45- 
"The  Principle  of  Anticipation,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol., 


XXIII:  350-58. 
Shaler,  N.  S.,  "The  Law  of  Fashion,"  Atlantic  Mon.,  LXI :  3S6- 

98. 
Simmel,  Georg,  "Fashion,"  International  Quarterly,  X :  130-55. 
Tardc,  Gabriel,  The  Laws  of  Imitation,  Ch.  VII. 
Vcblcn,  Thorstcin,  The  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class,  Chs.  Ill, 

IV,  VIT. 


Chapter  VIII. 

SUGGESTION-IMITATION   PHENOMENA 
(Continued) 

5.  Convention  Imitation.  When  a  fashion  is  char- 
acterized by  wide  acceptance,  it  becomes  a  convention. 
Convention,  however,  is  less  universal  and  less  perma- 
nent than  custom. 

Convention  imitation  is  based  both  on  prestige  and 
utility.  Occasionally  a  fashion  acquires  unusual 
prestige  and  through  extended  imitation,  sinks  into 
blind  and  widespread  acceptance.  Conventional  stan- 
dards are  usually  composed  of  much  that  is  irrational. 
The  extraordinary  high  heel  is  a  useless  and  danger- 
ous fashion  which  through  prestige  has  become  con- 
ventional. In  this  and  many  other  cases  of  common 
conventions,  the  origin  of  the  convention  is  found  in 
examples  set  by  the  hereditary  leisure  class.  Through 
prestige,  countless  conventions  govern  conduct  and 
tastes. 

Utility,  also,  creates  conventions.  Useful  inven- 
tions quickly  pass  from  the  fashionable  to  the  conven- 
tional, such  as  the  typewriter,  the  automobile,  the 
tractor.  Automobiles,  however,  serve  two  purposes 
— commercial  and  pleasure.  The  former  are  conven- 
tional ;  the  latter,  fashionable.  Pleasure  cars  permit 
competitive  ornamentation;  they  are  used  as  forms  of 


156  Social  Psychology 

conspicuous  consumption  of  goods.  Automobile  ac- 
cessories are  usually  in  the  fashionable  class. 

Conventionality  shares  with  fashionableness  the 
field  of  contemporary  imitation.^  A  convention  is  non- 
competitive, is  widely  adopted  as  the  standard,  and  is 
less  deliberate  than  fashion.  It  may  be  irrational, 
but  it  is  not  faddish  or  governed  by  the  mob  rule  of 
excitement. 

Conventionality,  like  custom,  reveals  servile  obedi- 
ence. Conventions  are  customs  in  the  making;  they 
frequently  are  customs  in  the  fields  of  manners  or 
morals, 

6.  Custom  Imitation.  Custom  imitation  is  the  un- 
conscious or  conscious  acceptance  of  ideas  or  ways  of 
doing  which  developed  and  spread  during  generations 
preceding  the  present.  It  is  non-competitive  and  non- 
deliberative,  like  convention  imitation.  The  impulses 
which  lead  one  to  convention  imitation  likewise  impel 
one  to  accept  without  analysis  the  standards  of  trie 
past. 

Custom  rules  with  an  iron  hand.  Custom  blinds. 
Custom  is  supported  by  the  power  of  habit.  The 
members  of  a  primitive  tribe  who  were  accustomed  to 
carry  all  loads  on  their  heads  were  furnished  with 
wheelbarrows  and  shown  how  to  use  them,  but  they 
refused  to  follow  instructions.  They  persisted  in 
carrying  the  loaded  wheelbarrows  upon  their  heads — 
so  great  was  the  strength  of  custom. 

Although  it  functions  throughout  life,  custom  imi- 
tation is  especially  strong  in  the  years  of  childhood 

'The  best  discussion  of  conventionality  has  been  given  by  E. 
A.  Ross,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  VII-XI. 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        157 

and  adolescence.  After  the  individual  reaches  ma- 
turity and  the  later  years  of  life,  he  asks  and  thinks  in 
customary  ways  without  often  asking  why.  The  fact 
that  a  way  of  doing  has  been  followed  successfully 
in  the  past  implies  present  usefulness.  But  utility  in 
the  past  is  not  necessarily  a  guarantee  of  present  serv- 
iceableness,  because  conditions  and  needs  may  have 
changed.  Hence,  even  customs  of  high  repute  should 
be  tested  occasionally  by  current  needs. 

A  written  constitution  may  be  well  suited  to  its  day, 
but  in  some  ways  be  a  hindrance  under  the  changed 
social  conditions  of  a  later  century.  Individuals  have 
established  endowments  by  will  for  worthy  purposes; 
but  conditions  shifted  and  the  endowment  legacy  no 
longer  met  needs.  Moreover,  the  legacy  cannot  be 
changed  if  in  the  meantime  the  giver  has  died.  En- 
dowments for  teaching  children  to  card,  spin,  and  knit 
were  worthy  at  the  time,  but  when  inventions  in  these 
fields  were  made  and  carding,  spinning  and  knitting 
became  machine  processes,  these  endowments,  perma- 
nent by  law,  became  useless.  The  custom  of  keeping 
windows  in  houses  closed  tightly  was  meritorious  in 
the  days  when  the  wind  blew  in  under  the  rafters, 
between  the  logs,  and  through  the  floors,  but  is  un- 
healthy when  houses  are  built  better.  Race  preju- 
dice was  necessary  in  the  time  of  fang  and  claw,  but 
harmful  under  the  reign  of  increasing  good  will. 
Political  autocracy  was  justified  when  99  per  cent  of 
the  people  were  illiterate  but  is  anti-social  when  the 
large  majority  are  educated  and  thoughtful. 

There  are  sections  of  life,  both  societary  and  indi- 
vidual, which  fall  directly  under  the  control  of  cus- 


158  Social  Psychology 

torn.  Language,  religion,  and  law  escape  with  diffi- 
culty from  the  cast-iron  grasp  of  custom.  It  is  cus- 
tom which  maintains  the  incongruities  in  a  language, 
dogmatism  in  a  religion,  and  blind  adherence  to  prece- 
dents in  law.  Custom  is  likely  to  rule  on  the  feeling 
side  of  life.  New  ideas  do  not  readily  penetrate  the 
feelings;  they  must  appear  in  the  garb  of  the  old — as 
customs;  whereas  under  the  rule  of  fashion  old  ideas 
in  order  to  survive  put  on  the  livery  of  the  new. 

Under  a  regime  of  custom  imitation,  the  leaders 
are  usually  elderly  men.  At  least  they  are  men  who 
stand  for  beliefs  that  have  become  established.  On 
the  other  hand,  under  the  sway  of  fashion,  the  leaders 
are  much  younger;  they  have  not  yet  reached  their 
prime  and  have  a  willingness  to  try  the  new. 

In  the  physically  isolated  places  of  the  earth,  such 
as  mountain  regions  or  islands  that  are  aside  from  the 
main  arteries  of  travel,  custom  imitation  is  in  the 
ascendance.  Likewise  in  the  socially  isolated  divisions 
of  society,  such  as  the  "slums,"  custom  imitation  rules. 
Moreover,  in  the  socially  isolated  phases  of  individual 
and  family  life,  custom  predominates.  The  newest 
furniture  is  put  in  the  living  room  while  out-worn  fur- 
nishings are  used  in  rear  rooms.  In  all  three  sets  of 
circumstances  there  are  lacking  essential  contacts  with 
and  stimulations  from  the  new. 

Tarde  has  shown  that  epochs  of  custom  imitation 
alternate  with  periods  of  fashion  imitation.  Some- 
times custom  and  convention  will  be  endorsed  by  one 
political  party  and  fashion  by  the  other — revealed  in 
the  classification  of  the  conservative  and  the  liberal 
parties,  or  the  conservative  and  liberal  wings  of  a 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        159 

single  party. 

There  is  a  normal  and  powerful  tendency  for  a 
crust  of  custom  to  form  over  the  psychic  life  of  every 
group.  There  is  a  continuous  carrying  forward  of 
the  mores.  The  group,  thus,  has  to  safeguard  itself 
against  stagnation  by  encouraging  a  certain  amount 
of  inquiry  in  regard  to  customary  beliefs.  If  this 
protective  measure  is  not  steadily  encouraged,  the 
group  will  be  smothered  and  crushed  beneath  the 
weight  of  outworn  customs,  or  dynamic  forces  within 
the  group  will  gather  strength  until  a  revolutionary 
break  is  made  at  some  point  through  the  enveloping 
crust.  The  value  of  custom  imitation  is  in  its  tend- 
ency to  conserve  the  best  ideas  and  activities  of  the 
past  (along  with  much  that  is  chaff,  which  has  to  be 
winnowed  by  criticism),  and  in  its  stabilizing  char- 
acter. 

7.  Rational  and  Socio-Rational  Imitation.  Ra- 
tional imitation  is  the  imitating  of  that  which  has 
merit  in  any  phase  of  life.  It  is  imitating  that  which 
is  efficient,  while  the  imitating  of  the  inefficient  is  irra- 
tional. It  includes  cross  sections  of  fashion,  conven- 
tion, and  custom  imitation. 

Since  customs  are  ways  of  doing  which  have  weath- 
ered the  storms  of  years,  and  human  nature  changes 
very  slowly,  a  larger  proportion  of  customs  are  ra- 
tional than  would  at  first  appear.  Attention  is  com- 
monly called  to  those  customs  which  have  become 
ridiculous  because  of  new  life  conditions,  while  the 
large  number  of  customs  which  function  smoothly 
and  usefully  are  rarely  mentioned.     To  the  degree 


i6o  Social  Psychology 

that  a  custom  is  accepted  critically  and  on  the  groiind 
of  serviceability,  the  process  is  rational.  Even  a  de- 
gree of  custom  imitation  which  is  not  characterized 
by  deliberation  is  rational. 

Convention  imitation  is  less  rational  than  custom 
imitation.  Conventions  often  gain  expression  in  the 
semi-superficial  phases  of  life  where  glamor  or  per- 
functory respectability  rule.  Reputability  sometimes 
covers  a  multitude  of  foolish  conventions.  When 
conventionality  is  examined,  however,  in  the  industrial 
or  the  scientific  process  it  ranks  high  rationally. 

Inasmuch  as  fashion  imitation  rests  largely  upon 
novelty  and  mere  reputability  it  is  ordinarily  irra- 
tional. Of  a  hundred  new  fashions  in  several  fields 
that  might  be  selected  at  random  probably  less  than 
ten  per  cent  could  be  proved  of  substantial  value. 

Rational  imitation  includes  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  custom  imitation,  a  lesser  degree  of  conven- 
tionality, and  a  small  percentage  of  fashionableness. 
Customs  and  conventions  must  be  submitted  continu- 
ously to  present-day  tests  of  efficiency,  or  they  will 
block  progress.  Fashions  also  need  to  be  submitted 
to  the  test  of  efficiency,  or  they  will  provoke  tremen- 
dous social  losses  and  dissipations. 

Certain  phases  of  group  and  individual  life  are 
under  the  rigid  control  of  rational  standards.  Busi- 
ness success  follows  high  standards  of  efficiency. 
Scientific  investigation  must  meet  the  requirements  of 
accuracy,  efficiency,  and  utility. 

Among  current  ciistoms  and  conventions  which  are 
irrational,  there  are  the  following: 

( T )    French  heels. 


Suesrestion-Imitation  Phenomena        i6i 


'fcjt) 


(2)  Hard,  stiff  collars  for  men. 

(3)  Wearing  furs  on  a  hot  summer  day. 

(4)  Wearing  woolen  coats  by  men  on  a  hot  day. 

(5)  Promiscuous  kissing  of  defenseless  babies. 

(6)  Piercing  ears  for  earrings. 

(7)  Wearing  gloves  when  they  are  not  needed 
for  protection. 

(8)  Thin,  filmy  styles  of  dress  for  women  in  cold 
weather. 

(9)  Considering  thirteen  an  unlucky  number. 

(10)  Knocking  on  wood  to  preserve  one's  good 
fortune. 

(11)  Wearing  spurs  by  officers  who  do  not  ride 
horses. 

(12)  Wearing  large  hats  in  church. 
/^(i3)   Throwing  rice  at  a  wedding  couple. 

(14)   Wearing  hoods  on  academic  gowns. 

A  vital  aspect  of  rational  imitation  is  socio-rational 
imitation,  which  applies  not  only  the  ordinary  stan- 
dards of  efficiency  but  also  those  of  human  welfare. 
It  adds  sociality  to  rationality. 

It  has  been  common  to  use  the  tests  of  efficiency 
and  reasoning  but  not  necessarily  socio-rational  criteria 
in  the  business  and  manufacturing  world.  To  crush 
out  small  competitors  has  been  considered  efficient  and 
rational  by  the  large  concerns,  but  they  have  not  been 
moved  in  so  doing  by  socio-rational  motives.  To 
strike  at  a  critical  hour  in  industrial  production  has 
been  considered  efficient  by  labor  leaders,  but  in  so 
doing  they  have  not  recognized  socio-rational  demands. 

Strength  of  character  and  efficiency  are  terms  which 


i62  Social  Psychology 

connote  rational  methods  of  living  and  working,  but 
both  may  be  and  are  used  in  destructive  and  disastrous 
ways  to  society.  Theoretically  and  carried  out  in  its 
fullest  meaning,  psychological  efficiency  ranks  high, 
but  practically  it  often  results  in  turning  men  into 
automatic  machines,  employees  into  mechanisms,  and 
spiritual  values  into  material  phenomena.  Strength 
of  character  is  no  guarantee  of  socialized  action. 
Villains  and  criminals  often  possess  great  strength  of 
character,  but  they  use  it  in  anti-social  directions. 
Socio-rational  imitation  adds  the  standard  of  social 
welfare  to  that  of  psychological  efficiency  and  strength 
of  character. 

Socio-rational  imitation  is  the  highest  form  of  ra- 
tional imitation.  In  the  past  rationality  has  been 
defined  largely  in  terms  of  individual  happiness  and 
welfare.  This  idea  always  had  staunch  support  in 
hedonism  and  related  ethical  theories.  Then  ration- 
ality was  given  a  larger  meaning  and  made  to  include 
individual  action  in  accordance  with  the  welfare  of 
small  groups,  such  as  one's  family  group,  the  business 
unit,  the  local  club  or  fraternal  organization.  It  is 
still  considered  rational  to  enact  tariff  legislation 
which  will  benefit  a  relatively  small  number  of  indi- 
viduals as  much  as  possible  and  enable  them  to  charge 
the  great  mass  of  consumers  in  our  own  country  more 
than  they  sell  the  same  goods  for  (at  a  fair  profit) 
in  a  foreign  country.  There  are  those  who  believe 
today  in  a  political  democracy  in  order  to  secure  eco- 
nomic gains  by  "log-rolling,"  by  undermining  law, 
by  preaching  the  doctrine  that  labor  and  capital  have 
nothing  in  common. 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        163 

The  difference  between  rational  and  socio-rational 
imitation  is  one  of  degree.  RationaHty  needs  to  be 
extended  so  that  the  acts  of  the  individual  and  of  the 
nation  will  be  measured  not  simply  by  local  or  selfish 
ends  but  by  humanity  standards.  Nations  are  still 
prone  to  act  along  paths  that  are  nationally  selfish 
and  to  call  such  action  rational.  Nations  submit  hesi- 
tatingly and  distrustfully  to  socio-international  pro- 
cedure. And  well  they  may,  until  all  the  leading 
nations  achieve  a  broader  basis  and  a  wider  horizon 
than  they  have  known  in  the  past  for  international 
conduct.  For  nations,  rational  imitation  has  meant 
chiefly  nationally  selfish  practices,  which  have  been 
proclaimed  rational.  A  socio-rational  example,  how- 
ever, has  been  set  by  the  United  States  when  through 
her  president  she  said  that  she  has  no  selfish  national 
ends  to  gain,  that  she  desires  no  conquest,  no  domin- 
ion, that  she  is  but  one  of  the  champions  of  the  rights 
of  mankind.^ 

A  socio-rational  way  of  imitating  is  the  most  valu- 
able method  of  imitation  which  is  known  to  social 
psychology. 


PROBLEMS 

(CONVENTION  AND  CUSTOM  IMITATION) 

I.  Explain:  "The  starched  collars  that  plague 
my  neck  are  a  yoke  of  servitude;  I  would  put  them 
away  if  I  were  strong  enough." 

'Address  to  Congress  by  Woodrow  Wilson,  April  2,  1917. 


164  Social  Psychology 

2.  Why  is  the  display  of  good  manners  conven- 
tional among  the  leisure  classes? 

3.  Illustrate :  "Almost  everywhere  propriety  and 
conventionality  press  more  mercilessly  on  woman  than 
on  man,  thereby  lessening  her  range  of  choice  and 
dwarfing  her  will." 

4.  Name  three  leading  conventions  of  the  day. 

5.  Why  does  a  Christian  gentleman  take  off  his 
hat  in  church  and  a  Mohammedan  his  shoes? 

6.  What  are  manners  for? 

7.  Explain :  Manners  become  worse  as  one 
travels  from  East  to  West — they  are  best  in  Asia, 
fairly  good  in  Europe,  bad  in  America. 

8.  Explain :  "Such  generally  admired  beauties  of 
person  or  costume  as  the  bandaged  foot,  the  high 
heel,  the  wasp  waist,  the  full  skirt,  and  the  long  train 
are  such  as  incapacitate  from  all  useful  work." 

9.  Give  an  original  illustration  of  the  statement 
that  physical  isolation  favors  customs. 

10.  Give  a  personally  observed  illustration  of  the 
statement  that  social  isolation  favors  customs. 

11.  Why  has  the  dress  suit  for  men  remained 
more  or  less  the  same  the  world  over? 

12.  Why  may  a  man  wear  the  same  dress  suit  for 
years,  whereas  a  woman  must  have  a  new  dress  for 
almost  every  formal  occasion? 

13.  What  survivals — no  longer  useful — do  you 
see  in  the  quaintly  cut  dress  coat? 

14.  Why  has  it  been  the  custom  in  the  United 
States  to  retire  generals  at  sixty-four  years  of  age? 

15.  Why  has  it  been  customary  to  choose  men  who 
are  past  middle  age  as  popes  and  judges? 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        165 

16.  Of  what  custom  is  Hallowe'en  a  survival? 

17.  Is  the  law  library  the  main  laboratory  of  the 
law  student? 

18.  What  are  the  good  phases  of  the  caste  system? 

19.  Whence  did  the  idea  arise  that  "manual  labor 
is  degrading"? 

20.  Why  do  so  many  people  believe  that  pecuniary 
success  is  the  only  success  ? 

21.  In  what  custom  did  the  hood  on  the  academic 
gown  originate? 

22.  Is  our  food  a  matter  of  personal  choice  or  of 
convention  ? 

23.  How  would  you  classify  a  man  who  wore  a 
new  red  necktie  when  the  white  conventional  evening 
dress  tie  is  expected? 

24.  What  customs  can  you  name  which  have 
developed  in  the  United  States? 

25.  Why  are  people  in  old  countries  more  inter- 
ested in  culture  than  people  in  new  ? 

26.  Does  the  study  of  languages  tend  to  encour- 
age the  habit  of  conformity  to  the  new? 

27.  How  does  the  mastery  of  the  classics  affect 
one's  social  stability? 

28.  Is  it  true  that  majorities  do  not  necessarily 
stand  for  truth  and  justice  but  often  for  the  customs 
and  convictions  of  the  past? 

29.  What  is  meant  by  "the  neophobia  of  the  old"  ? 

(RATIONAL  AND  SOCIO-RATIONAL  IMITATION 

30.  Is  it  rational  to  follow  authority? 


1 66  Social  Psychology 

31.  Indicate  a  rational  way  of  "ascertaining 
woman's  sphere." 

32.  What  are  the  strongest  foes  of  new  and  socio- 
rational  ideas? 

33.  Make  an  original  list  of  five  irrational  customs. 

34.  Which  develops  a  more  open,  rational  mind, 
the  laboratory  method,  or  the  text-book  method? 

35.  Is  it  rational  for  a  religious  leader  to  require 
his  followers  "to  renounce  the  extravagances  of 
fashion  and  to  dress  simply"? 

36.  How  does  the  study  of  hygiene,  psychology, 
and  sociology  help  one  to  become  crank-proof? 

37.  Why  do  Americans  who  eat  raw  oysters  criti- 
cize the  Japanese  for  eating  uncooked  fish? 

38.  Why  do  American  women  criticize  Chinese 
women  for  compressing  their  feet  longitudinally  when 
they  themselves  try  "to  escape  the  stigma  of  having 
normal  feet"  by  "a  formidable  degree  of  lateral  com- 
pression" ? 

39.  Why  do  we  ridicule  the  customs  and  beliefs 
of  other  peoples  while  we  remain  oblivious  to  the 
weaknesses  of  our  own  customs  and  fashions? 

40.  What  effect  does  knowledge  of  the  customs 
and  beliefs  of  other  peoples  have  upon  your  own  cus- 
toms and  beliefs? 

41.  Does  one's  manner  of  living,  or  manner  of 
work  change  the  more  rapidly?    Why? 

42.  If  you  were  trying  to  induce  "Jews  and  Chris- 
tians, Orangemen  and  Catholics,  Germans  and  Slavs, 
Poles  and  Lithuanians"  to  sink  their  enmities,  how 
would  you  proceed? 

43.  Who  has  the  wider  outlook  and  the  freer  mind, 


Suggestion-Imitation  Phenomena        167 

the  average  teacher,  or  the  average  parent? 

44.  In  what  sense  is  rational  imitation  conserva- 
tive? 

45.  How  is  rational  imitation  radical? 

46.  Give  a  new  illustration  of  the  statement  that 
"one  of  the  greatest  pains  to  hitman  nature  is  the  pain 
of  a  new  idea." 

47.  Explain :  "Most  of  us  jump  into  our  beliefs 
with  both  feet  and  stand  there." 

48.  If  everybody  should  become  a  rational  imita- 
tor, would  progress  cease  because  of  the  lack  of  peo- 
ple to  try  strange  and  peculiar  ideas  ? 

49.  Why  in  this  civilized  country  are  so  many 
fashions  irrational  ? 

50.  Does  education  always  imply  rational  imita- 
tion? 

51.  What  is  the  main  difference  between  rational 
and  socio-rational  imitation? 

52.  Why  have  we  just  begun  to  talk  about  socio- 
rational  imitation? 


READINGS 


(CONVENTION  AND  CUSTOM  IMITATION) 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  X. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organisation,  Chs.  XVIII,  XX. 

Hearn,  W.  E.,  The  Aryan  Household,  Ch.  XVII. 

Howard,  G.  E.,  Social  Psychology,  (syllabus),  Sects.  XII,  XIII. 

Lang,  A.,  Custom  and  Myth,  pp.  10-28. 


1 68  Social  Psychology 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  XII-XI. 

Social  Control,  Ch.  XV. 

Sumner,  W.  G.,  Folkways. 

Veblen,  Thorstein,  The  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class,  Chs.   IX, 
XI. 

(RATIONAL  AND  SOCIO-RATIONAL  IMITATION) 

Howard,  G.  E.,  Social  Psychology,  (syllabus),  Sect.  XIV. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XVI. 


Chapter  IX. 
INVENTION  AND  LEADERSHIP 

I.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Invention.  Inven- 
tion and  leadership  are  related  phenomena.  In  a 
broad  sense,  leadership  includes  inventing,  discover- 
ing, prophesying,  organizing,  and  also  directing  natu- 
ral and  social  forces.  The  analysis  of  leadership  must 
be  preceded  by  a  study  of  the  social  psychology  of 
invention. 

The  history  of  invention  is  concerned  not  with  "the 
unoriginal  moments  of  any  man's  life,  nor  with  the 
stolid  procession  that  never  had  a  thought  of  their 
own,"  but  with  the  brightest,  happiest,  creative  mo- 
ments of  the  most  fortunate  minds  of  all  races  and 
in  part  with  the  most  beneficent  contributions  of  man- 
kind.^ 

( I )  Invention  means  coming  upon,  seeing  into, 
and  perceiving  new  relationships.  Two  hitherto  un- 
connected ideas  come  together  in  the  mind,  a  mental 
flash  occurs,  the  ideas  are  correlated,  and  invention 
results. 

To  see  a  new  relationship  is  the  essence  of  inven- 
tion.    In  ancient  Babylon,  individual  characters  were 
stamped  upon  brick,  but  it  was  not  until  centuries  later 
that  the  simple  process  of  putting  the  individual  char- 
ge T.  Mason,  Origins  of  Invention,  p.  28. 


170  Social  Psychology 

acters  together  and  of  substituting  printing  for  writ- 
ing was  invented.  When  Heracles  undertook  the  task 
of  cleaning  the  Augean  farmyard  where  3000  oxen 
had  been  stabled  for  thirty  years  he  first  used  his  im- 
agination, and  instead  of  trying  laborious  methods  he 
perceived  that  by  turning  the  course  of  the  Alpheus 
and  Peneus  rivers  through  the  stables,  the  gigantic 
task  would  be  accomplished  in  short  order.  Accord- 
ing to  Herodotus,  Cyrus  the  Great  was  halted  in  his 
attack  upon  Babylon  by  the  massive  city  walls,  until  a 
new  idea  flashed  into  his  imagination,  whereupon 
he  ordered  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  turned  aside, 
and  sending  his  army  along  the  river  bed  and  under 
the  walls  of  the  city,  he  took  by  surprise  the  hosts  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  not  anticipated  such  a 
stratagem. 

(2)  Inventions  spring  from  individuality.  To 
the  extent  that  one's  individuality  finds  expression  in 
his  work  he  invents.  Every  imitation  is  accompanied 
by  at  least  a  small  degree  of  initiation.  Since  the 
imitator  sees  life  at  a  somewhat  different  angle  from 
the  initiated,  he  will  unconsciously.  If  not  deliberately, 
incorporate  new  elements  into  the  process — which  is 
fundamental  to  all  invention.  The  copying  of  the 
acts  of  another  is  influenced  by  the  personal  equation 
of  the  imitator.  It  is  impossible  for  one  person  to 
copy  exactly  the  handwriting  of  another,  except  pre- 
sumably by  diligent,  painstaking,  and  concentrated 
effort.  Hence  invention  and  imitation  are  opposite 
poles  of  the  same  phenomenon — every  imitation  re- 
sults in  at  least  a  slight  modification,  or  invention. 

"J.  M.  Baldwin,  The  Individual  and  Society,  p.  149. 


Invention  and  Leadership  171 

"Invention  is  as  natural  as  Imitation,""  since  It  Is 
the  normal  expression  of  individuality.  Invention 
commences  early  In  life.  When  the  child  begins  to 
speak,  he  begins  to  Invent.  He  names  (a  process  of 
invention)  his  parents  and  himself  (pa  pa,  ma  ma, 
ba  ba).  He  Is  full  of  new  and  original  potentialities. 
Parents  and  teachers  have  their  minds  set  upon 
standardizing  him.  But  In  the  necessary  disciplining, 
the  parent  and  even  the  teacher  often  neglect  to  study 
and  to  encourage  his  Inventive  ability.  The  unique 
phases  of  his  personality  are  likely  to  receive  no 
studied  attention  unless  they  take  the  form  of  obstrep- 
erousness  and  recalcitrancy.  It  rarely  occurs  that  he 
receives  other  than  repressive  treatment. 

The  teacher  in  one  of  our  public  schools  could  do 
nothing  with  a  small  Italian  boy  who  was  unruly 
beyond  description.  The  principal  gave  up  the  boy 
and  turned  him  over  to  a  special  school.  There  the 
teacher  quietly  watched  the  newcomer  when  he  was 
playing  In  the  schoolyard.  His  new  playmates  soon 
discovered  his  special  ability  to  sing.  Before  the  first 
day  was  over  at  the  parental  school,  the  wayward 
youth  was  playing  truant,  singing  for  pay  to  his  new 
found  admirers.  He  was  singing  rag-time,  but  with 
a  voice  that  the  parental  school  teacher  recognized  as 
remarkable.  "Tony,"  said  the  teacher,  "can  you  sing 
something  from  any  of  the  Italian  operas?"  Imme- 
diately In  tones  of  amazing  purity,  Tony  sang  La 
donna  e  mobile.  "Would  you  like  to  take  some  music 
lessons?"  asked  the  teacher.  With  tears  quickly  well- 
ing Into  his  eyes,  Tony's  heart  melted  and  his  mind 
leaped  with  the  flash  and  fire  of  a  new  enthusiasm — 


172  Social  Psychology 

and  yet  an  enthusiasm  as  old  as  the  Italian  race.  He 
caused  no  more  trouble  to  the  school,  and  more  im- 
portant, his  ability  to  create  art — that  is,  to  invent — 
received  recognition  and  effective  encouragement. 

In  hearing  new  words  and  terms,  the  child  com- 
monly invents  meanings  for  them.  When  he  invents 
a  wrong  interpretation,  his  parents  may  scold  him. 
They  fail  to  see  that  what  is  a  mistake  to  them  is  an 
invention  of  the  child  and  that  they  may  be  suppress- 
ing what  is  most  creative  in  their  child.  The  little 
girl  who  upon  seeing  a  homely  yellow  cat,  said : 
"There  goes  an  orange  meow,"  had  made  a  crude 
and  simple  invention  of  terms.  The  child  who  wanted 
to  be  tucked  into  bed  at  night  and  said:  "Tighten 
me  up  on  both  sides,  Daddy,"  expressed  in  her  own 
way  an  inaccurate  but  new  connection  of  activities. 
In  standardizing  children  there  is  danger  of  being 
blind  to  the  inventiveness  that  crops  out  through  indi- 
viduality. The  danger  lurks  everywhere,  from  the 
methods  of  parental  disciplining  to  the  habit  of  some 
university  instructors  who  grade  high  the  students 
who  memorize  everything  that  the  instructors  ex- 
pound, but  do  nothing  else. 

Invention,  then,  usually  springs  from  the  individ- 
ualistic side  of  personality,  in  much  the  same  way 
that  imitation  is  a  resultant  of  sociality.  Self  initia- 
tive and  assertion  produce  innovations.  Inventions 
have  not  usually  been  made  for  the  purpose  of  ren- 
dering public  service  but  to  satisfy  some  desire,  or  to 
secure  an  answer  to  some  problem.  Incidental  to  the 
process  is  the  individual's  love  of  inventing.  The 
more  creative  the  invention  the  greater  the  satisfac- 


Invention  and  Leadership  173 

tion  which  comes  to  the  individual. 

(3)  Effort  leads  to  invention.  The  dynamic  ele- 
ment in  all  instincts  is  fundamental  to  invention.  The 
motor  character  of  ideas  is  found  in  invention.  Long, 
persistent  mental  toil  is  nearly  always  the  price  of  an 
invention;  the  lazy  rarely  innovate.  Almost  all  the 
greatest  inventors  have  been  indefatigable  workers. 

Invention  may  be  as  natural  as  imitation,  but  it  is 
immeasurably  more  difficult.  The  inventor  frequently 
finds  himself  against  a  stone  wall,  and  it  is  only  by 
concentrated  effort  in  apparently  hopeless  and  endless 
experimenting  that  the  problem  is  solved.  Individual 
initiative,  agility  of  mind,  and  focalized  attention — 
these  are  essential  to  invention. 

(4)  Curiosity  culminates  in  invention.  The  nat- 
ural trend  of  the  curiosity  instinct  is  toward  discovery. 
It  is  the  inquiring  mind  which  discovers,  invents, 
creates.  Inquiring,  questioning,  longing  are  the  ante- 
cedents of  invention. 

The  curiosity  instinct  interprets  life  in  terms  of 
problems — problems  which  call  for  answers  and  solu- 
tions. The  inventive  mind  always  is  characterized  by 
problems — problems  which  call  forth  incessant  energy 
and  focalization  of  effort.  It  is  the  person  who  has 
no  questions  to  ask  who  rarely  invents.  Questioning 
is  a  precious  trait,  because  it  precedes  invention. 

(5)  Invention  is  problem-solving.  Invention 
arises  from  individual  needs,  from  problems,  from 
attempts  to  extricate  oneself  from  difficulties,  from  a 
reasonable  degree  of  worrying.  The  starting  point 
is  a  problem;  the  next  essential  is  a  desire  to  solve 
the  problem;  then  collection  and  analysis  of  data  are 


174  Social  Psychology 

necessary;  and  finally,  a  new  and  useful  relationship 
is  discovered. 

In  this  process  the  inventor  may  come  upon  an  en- 
tirely unexpected  relationship;  the  invention,  or  dis- 
covery, may  be  different  from  the  one  for  which  the 
long  search  is  made.  In  studying  an  apparatus  de- 
signed to  repeat  Morse  characters,  Mr.  Edison  was 
looking  for  possible  ways  of  Improving  the  instru- 
ment when  his  attention  was  attracted  to  peculiar 
humming  noises.  He  perceived  a  resemblance  of  these 
sounds  to  the  human  voice — and  caught  a  vision  which 
led  to  an  unanticipated  invention,  the  phonograph. 
Daguerre  left  an  underexposed  plate  in  a  cupboard 
and  later  found  that  it  was  developed.  He  could  not 
understand  the  cause.  In  the  cupboard,  however,  he 
found  a  capsule  of  mercury,  a  metal  which  discharges 
steam  at  ordinary  temperature.  He  experimented 
with  underexposed  plates  and  mercury — the  result  was 
the  daguerreotype. 

Problem-solving  is  fundamental  to  all  invention 
and  discovery.  A  desire,  a  need,  a  problem;  concen- 
tration of  attention  upon  the  problem;  the  trial  and 
error  method  of  experimentation ;  finally,  the  expected 
or  the  unanticipated  discovery:  such  is  invention. 
Hence  it  may  be  seen  that  the  process  is  relatively 
simple  and  the  possibilities  of  making  useful  inven- 
tions are  open  to  almost  any  energetic  mind. 

It  may  be  stated  here  that  psychologically  there  Is 
no  essential  difference  between  discovering  and  in- 
venting. Consider  the  discovery  of  America:  first, 
there  was  a  problem,  namely,  to  travel  by  direct  route 
to  India;  then  the  brilliant  Idea  that  Europe  was  re- 


Invention  and  Leadership  175 

lated  or  connected  with  India  by  the  Western  seas; 
then,  the  search,  the  long  journey,  the  steadfast  west- 
ward gaze,  and  the  holding  against  tremendous  odds 
to  the  westward  course;  finally,  land,  not  India,  but  a 
new  continent. 

(6)  Invention  is  produced  by  an  inventive  atmos- 
phere. Invention  is  "catching."  The  spirit  of  in- 
vention spreads  and  inventive  enthusiasm  runs  high. 
Nations  experience  inventive  epochs.  An  age  of 
fashion,  as  opposed  to  one  of  custom,  represents  in- 
ventive craze  as  well  as  imitative  craze.  Behind 
countless  superficial,  artificial  fashions  is  the  spirit  of 
invention,  and  out  of  the  process  a  few  worthy  inven- 
tions are  produced. 

About  the  year  1500  there  was  a  group  of  land  dis- 
coveries— discovering  land  became  the  fashion.  Land 
discoveries  flocked  together.  Since  19 17  there  has 
been  a  series  of  air-transportation  inventions.  One 
air-transportation  invention  or  achievement  stimulates 
countless  individuals  to  greater  efforts;  thus  new  rec- 
ords in  this  field  are  continually  being  made. 

The  inventive  atmosphere  is  partly  created  by  social 
stimulation.  A  whole  nation  can  pass  into  a  social 
stupor,  and  individuals  be  put  to  sleep  by  social  inertia, 
and  live  and  die  without  being  aware  of  needs  which 
can  be  met  by  invention.  Social  satisfaction  and 
stagnation  kill  inventiveness.  On  the  other  hand,  so- 
cial activity  and  recognition  promote  the  inventive 
spirit. 

Industry  and  business  have  eagerly  sought  the  in- 
ventor of  material  processes,  and  consequently  the 
inventions    in    these    fields    have    overshadowed    all 


176  Social  Psychology 

others.  Recognition  in  the  realm  of  art  in  our  coun- 
try comes  tardily,  and  creative  art  as  a  result  has  been 
held  back. 

(7)  Invention  is  sometimes  caused  by  necessity. 
"Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention."  By  virtue  of 
circumstances  Robinson  Crusoe  became  an  inventor. 
Many  a  phlegmatic  and  unimaginative  person  has 
found  himself  in  situations  where  he  was  obliged  to 
invent.  Exhaustion  of  productive  lands  compelled 
experimentation  in  dry  farming  and  irrigation.  An 
ultimate  scarcity  of  crude  oils  will  force  the  invention 
of  a  substitute  for  gasoline  as  a  source  of  power  for 
driving  automobiles,  and  then  of  a  substitute  for  the 
gasoline  engine. 

(8)  Invention  is  modification.  Nearly  all  new 
ideas  and  appliances  which  reach  the  United  States 
Patent  Office  are  classified  as  improvements.  In 
other  words,  an  invention  is  usually  a  projection  from 
a  group  of  older  inventions. 

The  invention  of  the  steam  engine  was  not  made 
in  its  entirety  in  the  year  1769  by  James  Watt, 
neither  did  it  take  place  on  the  day  that  the  attention 
of  Watt  was  centered  on  the  rising  and  falling  lid  of 
the  tea-kettle.  The  invention  of  the  steam  engine 
goes  back  to  the  aelipile  made  by  Hero  of  Alexandria 
in  the  second  century,  B.  C,  to  a  type  of  steam  wind- 
mill that  v/as  worked  out  by  G.  Branca  about  1629, 
to  the  steam  apparatus  which  was  manufactured  by 
the  Marquis  of  Worcester  in  1663,  to  the  application 
of  steam  power  to  various  kinds  of  machines  by 
Thomas  Savery  about  1700,  to  Papin's  idea  of  the 
piston,    to   Newcomen's   piston   engine,    a   model   of 


Invention  and  Leadership  177 

which  Watt  was  repairing  when  in  1763  he  set  to 
work  to  eHminate  the  waste  of  steam  due  to  alternate 
chilHng  and  heating  of  the  cyHnder.  With  this  prob- 
lem in  mind,  Watt  worked  for  six  years  before  he 
had  perfected  the  separate  condenser  in  1769,  the  date 
at  which  it  is  popularly  said  that  the  steam  engine  was 
invented.  This  invention,  therefore,  involved  more 
than  the  observation  of  a  tea-kettle ;  it  included  count- 
less improvements  that  had  been  made  by  many  per- 
sons throughout  a  long  period  of  time. 

The  modifications  which  constitute  inventions  are 
of  three  classes:  (a)  natural  evolutions,  (b)  trans- 
formations, and  (c)  marked  deviations.^  Qualita- 
tively, this  order  represents  an  ascending  scale.  The 
diflerence  is  one  of  degree.  As  a  result  of  the  in- 
creasing difficulty  which  is  involved,  this  schedule  con- 
stitutes, numerically,  a  descending  scale,  (a)  Inven- 
tions that  are  natural  evolutions  of  previously  discov- 
ered relationships  are  the  easiest  to  make  and  the  most 
common.  To  change  a  gourd  into  a  receptacle  for 
carrying  water,  to  use  a  stone  as  a  weapon,  to  make  a 
cave  into  a  cave-house,  or  to  give  a  slant  to  perpen- 
dicular windshields — these  are  natural  evolutions. 
They  range  from  innumerable  small  changes,  scarcely 
worthy  to  be  called  inventions,  to  transformations  of 
materials. 

(b)  Some  inventions  are  complex  combinations  of 
known  relationships.  The  results  are  transforma- 
tions of  the  constituent  elements.  To  connect  a 
bucket  and  a  rope  with  a  wheel  for  the  purpose  of 

'See  the  extended  discussion  of  this  theme  by  F.  Paulhan, 
Psychologie  de  I'invention,  livre  II. 


178  Social  Psychology 

drawing  water  from  a  well,  to  attach  a  foot  lever  to  a 
spinning-wheel  so  as  to  change  the  immediate  source 
of  power  and  free  the  hand,  or  to  put  pneumatic  tubes 
upon  automobile  wheels :  these  are  transformations  in 
ordinary  usages. 

(c)  Marked  deviations  from  current  knowledge 
and.  skill  are  the  highest  forms  which  invention  takes. 
They  involve  the  recognition  of  relationships  appar- 
ently unrelated.  They  range  up  into  the  most  bril- 
liant findings,  conceptions,  and  creations  of  geniuses. 
The  invention  of  the  cipher,  the  discovery  of  fire,  the 
application  of  steam  to  machinery,  the  making  of  an 
instrument  for  transmitting  and  reproducing  human 
speech  between  points  that  are  miles  apart,  the  con- 
ception that  the  earth  is  round,  the  creation  of  a  na- 
tional epic :  such  are  a  few  examples  of  marked 
deviations. 

(9)  Inventions  are  neutral.  They  may  destroy 
or  construct  society.  A  new  chemical  combination 
can  be  used  to  human  advantage  or  disadvantage. 
The  invention  of  gunpowder,  nitroglycerin,  TNT 
may  be  made  the  servants  or  the  destroyers  of  man. 
The  printing  press  is  an  instrument  for  carrying  the 
best  socialized  teachings  of  the  New  Testament 
around  the  world,  or  to  disseminate  morbid  indecen- 
cies. An  aeroplane  may  carry  food  to  dying  children 
or  bombs  to  destroy  children. 

(10)  Inventions  are  cyclical.  An  ordinary  inven- 
tion passes  through  a  cycle  of  existence.  Tarde  has 
recognized  three  stages  in  such  a  cycle — an  incline,  a 
plateau,  and  a  decline.*     (a)  The  incline  is  often  very 

*Tlie  Laws  of  Imitation,  pp.  126,  158,  174. 


Invention  and  Leadership  179 

sloping.  Inventions  are  sometimes  accepted  with 
great  rekictance  and  after  long  delays.  The  steam 
engine,  traveling  at  the  fearful  rate  of  ten  or  fifteen 
miles  an  hour  was  long  considered  by  many  people 
a  work  of  the  devil.  The  automobile  has  received 
readier  acceptance.  The  steepness  of  the  incline  of 
common  adoption  depends  upon  the  nature  and  the 
number  of  the  prejudices  which  must  be  vanquished 
and  upon  the  mental  speed  and  activity  of  the  people. 
A  book  that  is  far  ahead  of  the  age  in  which  it  appears 
will  likely  remain  unrecognized  during  the  life-time 
of  the  author.  Beethoven  died  almost  unknown. 
Mendel's  laws  of  heredity  were  not  recognized  until 
forty  years  after  their  discovery. 

(b)  The  plateaux  of  an  invention  may  be  short  or 
long,  depending  upon  its  usefulness  and  the  mental 
activity  of  its  environment.  A  "best  seller"  may  re- 
main such  for  only  one  month  or  it  may  continue 
such  for  twenty  months.  The  bicycle  enjoyed  a  short- 
lived popularity,  because  of  the  perfecting  of  the  more 
serviceable  automobile  The  sailing  vessel  enjoyed 
first  place  for  centuries  as  a  means  of  ocean  transpor- 
tation, until  the  steamboat  demonstrated  its  greater 
utility. 

(c)  The  decline  may  be  abrupt  or  gradual.  As  a 
rule  the  decline  is  gently  sloping,  for  an  invention  that 
is  widely  adopted  acquires  the  sanction  of  custom  and 
holds  on  with  tenacity  long  after  it  has  been  super- 
seded in  serviceability  by  another  invention.  Inven- 
tions tend  to  become  encased  in  the  feelings,  and  to 
die  slowly.  Superstitions  possess  a  long  drawn  out 
decline.     Occasionally,  however,  an  invention  is  made, 


i8o  Social  Psychology 

such  as  a  new  machine  or  a  new  industrial  process, 
and  established  machines  and  processes  are  discarded 
suddenly. 

There  are  many  inventions  which  live  on — with  no 
decline  in  sight,  such  as  the  ethical  teachings  in  the 
New  Testament,  the  metric  system,  printing,  the  idea 
that  the  earth  is  spherical.  Others  survive  as  parts 
of  new  and  better  inventions,  such  as  the  wheel — in 
the  wheelbarrow,  the  wagon,  the  automobile,  the 
watch. 

( 1 1 )  Inventions  are  cumulative.  Inventing  leads 
to  further  inventing.     Inventing  may  become  habitual. 

The  succession  of  inventions  is  not  entirely  acci- 
dental. America  could  hardly  have  been  discovered 
by  Europeans  through  conscious  plans  until  the  idea 
had  been  conceived  and  accepted  that  the  earth  is 
round.  The  wagon  could  not  have  been  invented  be- 
fore the  wheel;  the  sailing  vessel,  before  the  boat; 
cooking  processes,  before  the  discovery  of  fire;  the 
watch-spring,  before  steel.  Therefore  there  is  a  logic 
of  inventions  as  well  as  of  events. 

Inventions  produce  inventions.  They  are  gregari- 
ous; they  come  in  droves.  Every  valuable  invention 
releases  possibilities  of  further  inventions.  Inven- 
tions are  not  entirely  sporadic,  but  follow  one  another 
in  a  rough  secjuence. 

No  invention  is  complete  and  final.  Every  inven- 
tion presages  others.  An  invention  is  a  potential  par- 
ent of  generations  of  unborn  inventions.  The  pres- 
sure upon  the  truly  imaginative,  thoughtful  person  to 
invent  is  strong.  Persons  are  called  to  be  creators 
and  joint  heirs  with  the  Great  Creator. 


Invention  and  Leadership  i8i 

(12)  Civilization  is  an  invention.  We  live  in  a 
world  of  inventions.  Through  imitation,  inventions 
are  omnipresent.  Every  word  in  this  book  is  the  in- 
vention of  some  one.  The  chair  in  which  you  sit; 
the  pictures  upon  the  walls ;  the  building  which  houses 
you ;  food,  from  the  rolled  oats  or  puffed  wheat  in 
the  morning  to  the  Neapolitan  ice  cream  in  the  even- 
ing are  inventions.  In  eating,  your  hands  and 
mouth  are  busy  with  inventions.  The  automobile,  the 
street,  the  office,  the  telephone,  the  alphabet,  language 
— all  is  invention.  We  live  and  move  and  have  our 
being  in  invention. 

Civilization  is  a  synthesis  of  inventions.  How 
many  invented  processes  are  combined  in  the  fountain 
pen  or  the  typewriter  with  which  I  work.  Consider 
the  inventions  in  a  baseball  game.  Who  can  disentan- 
gle and  write  the  history  of  the  inventions  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States? 

Everything  and  every  idea  bears  the  injunction : 
Let  us  invent.  Educational  systems  have  overworked 
imitation,  but  scarcely  tapped  the  possibilities  of  en- 
couraging invention.  Individuality,  initiative,  concen- 
tration, invention,  creation — this  is  the  logic  of  inven- 
tion. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Can  you  name  anything  that  you  daily  use 
which  is  not  an  invention? 

2.  Why  are  so  many  of  the  persons  who  have 
made  inventions  unknown  to  us? 


1 82  Social  Psychology 

3.  What  psychic  characteristics  are  essential  in  an 
inventor  ? 

4.  Explain :    The  time  is  ripe  for  an  invention. 

5.  If  it  is  natural  to  invent,  why  do  we  not  invent 
more  than  we  do? 

6.  Explain :     There   are   few   persons   who   are 
qualified  to  use  inventions. 

7.  Distinguish  between  invention  and  leadership. 

8.  Distinguish  between  copying  and  adopting  the 
methods  of  others. 

9.  Can  you  name  an  invention  which  is  not  used 
both  for  and  against  the  welfare  of  society? 

10.  If  Edison  had  lived  in  Central  Africa,  what 
would  have  been  the  nature  of  his  inventions? 

11.  What  five  inventions  come  first  to  your  mind 
as  the  world's  greatest  inventions? 

12.  Describe  the  probable  mental  process  which  im- 
mediately preceded  the  invention  of  the  bow  and  ar- 
row. 

13.  Give  from  your  observation  an  illustration  of 
any  one  of  the  twelve  phases  of  invention  which  are 
mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

14.  What  elements  in  the  social  psychology  of  in- 
vention can  you  name  which  this  chapter  does  not  men- 
tion? '    '    ' 

READINGS 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Chs.  Ill,  IV. 

The  Individual  and  Society,  Ch.  V. 

Knowlson,  T.  S.,  Originality. 

Mach,  E.,  "On  the  Part  Played  by  Accident  in  Invention  and  Dis- 
covery," Monist,  111:161-75. 


Invention  and  Leadership  183 

Mason,  O.  T.,  The  Origins  of  Invention,  Ch.  I. 

Paulhan,  F.,  Psychologie  de  I'invention,  livre  II. 

Tanner,  Amy  E.,  "Certain  Social  Aspects  of  Invention,"  Amer. 

Jour,  of  Psychol.,  26:388-416. 
Tarde,  Gabriel,  La  Logique  Sociale,  Ch.  IV. 

The  Laws  of  Imitation,  Ch.  V. 

Taussig,  F.  W.,  Inventors  and  Money-Makers,  Chs.  I,  II. 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Ch.  X. 

Ward,  L.  F.,  Psychic  Factors  in  Civilisation,  Chs.  XXVII-XXXI. 

Applied  Sociology,  Part  II. 

Pure  Sociology,  Chs.  XVIII,  XIX. 

Warren,  W.  P.,  "Edison  on  Invention  and  Inventors,"  Century, 

LXXXII:  415-19. 
Wissler,    C,    "Relation    of    Culture    to    Environment    from    the 
Standpoint  of  Invention,"  Popular  Science  Mon.,  LXXXIII : 
164-68. 


I  ■ 

i 


Chapter  X. 

INVENTION  AND  LEADERSHIP 
(Continued) 

2.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Leadership.  The 
leader  is  a  social  inventor.  He  is  the  chief  factor  in 
the  invention-imitation  process.  Three  important 
questions  will  be  considered  in  this  chapter.  ( i ) 
What  are  the  fundamental  elements  in  leadership? 
(2)  What  are  the  principal  types  of  leaders?  (3) 
Under  what  conditions  are  geniuses  matured  ? 

Leadership  arises  from  the  self-assertive  impulses 
of  personality.  It  is  a  crystallization  of  self -initiative. 
Tendencies  to  think,  to  act,  to  achieve  are  basic  to  lead- 
ership. In  a  similar  way  the  curiosity  impulses  and 
problem-solving  impulses  are  fundamental. 

Individuality  produces  leadership.  Every  person 
possesses  by  birth  some  characteristics  which  distin- 
guish him  from  every  one  else.  It  is  this  margin  of 
uniqueness  which  gives  each  individual  a  natural  lead- 
ership advantage.  When  we  describe  a  person  as  a 
round  peg  in  a  square  hole,  or  as  having  missed  his 
calling,  we  mean  that  he  has  ignored  his  margin  of 
natural  uniqueness.  Vocational  guidance  partially  de- 
pends upon  discovering  the  individual's  margin  of  vari- 
ation. This  margin  gives  every  person  a  field  of  de- 
velopment and  activity  in  which  no  one  else  can  com- 


Invention  and  Leadership  185 

pete  with  him.  In  this  non-competitive  phase  of  per- 
sonality there  is  unhmited  room  for  self-expression, 
invention,  and  leadership. 

Out  of  this  margin  individuality  develops.  Unique- 
ness of  inherited  traits  combined  with  uniqueness  of 
experience  spells  individuality.  Thus  every  person 
builds  up  a  point  of  view  which  is  distinctly  his  own, 
which  sets  him  off  from  all  his  fellows,  and  which  is 
the  essence  of  originality. 

A  fine  physique  is  essential  for  certain  types  of  lead- 
ership and  helpful  in  all.  As  a  substitute  for  a  tall 
stature.  Napoleon  appeared  before  his  soldiers  on  a 
horse.  E.  B.  Gowin  found  that  the  executives  of  in- 
surance companies  are  taller  in  stature  than  the  aver- 
age person  who  holds  an  insurance  policy,  that  bishops 
are  taller  than  the  rank  and  file  of  clergymen,  univer- 
sity presidents  than  presidents  of  small  colleges,  city 
superintendents  than  principals  in  small  towns,  sales 
managers  than  salesmen,  railroad  presidents  than  sta- 
tion agents.^  The  group  ranks  a  tall  man  superior  to  a 
short  man,  but  the  group  judges  unscientifically. 

Phj^sical  energy  and  endurance  are  more  important 
qualifications  than  height  alone.  They  more  than 
compensate  for  stature.  In  the  long  run  they  enable 
the  individual  to  build  a  reputation  and  to  make  a  rec- 
ord of  achievement  which  are  essential  to  permanent 
leadership. 

Mental  energy  and  endurance  is  a  more  consequen- 

'These  leaders  also  weigh  more  than  average  individuals,  but 
they  are  undoubtedly  better  fed  and  better  cared  for  physically — 
circumstances  which  partially  explain  the  greater  weight,  and 
are  a  result  as  well  as  a  cause.  Cf.  E.  B.  Gowin,  The  Executive 
and  His  Control  of  Men,  which  contains  a  large  amount  of  data 
upon  leadership  of  the  executive  type. 


1 86  Social  Psychology 

tial  element  in  leadership  than  physical  abilities.  In 
the  clash  of  mind  with  mind  superior  psychical  quali- 
ties quickly  assert  themselves  and  win  recognition.  It 
is  unfortunate,  however,  that  countless  persons  sacri- 
fice physical  energy  in  securing  a  one-sided  develop- 
ment of  mentality.  Pity  rather  than  praise  is  justly 
accorded  the  college  "grind,"  or  the  business  man  who 
sacrifices  health  for  financial  success.  "I  work  fifteen 
hours  a  day,"  proudly  asserts  a  professional  leader,  but 
later  finds  himself  the  victim  of  nervous  and  physical 
exhaustion  and  unable  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his 
achievements  as  a  leader. 

A  still  more  important  factor  in  leadership  is  focal- 
ization  of  psychic  energy.^  The  genius  is  a  person 
whose  psychic  energy  is  highly  focalized.  If  the  pro- 
cess has  been  carried  out  by  nature,  the  product  is  the 
born-genius.  If  the  focalization  is  done  by  the  indi- 
vidual himself,  the  result  is  a  genius  by  hard  work  and 
concentration.  The  first  is  a  genius  by  inheritance; 
the  second,  by  personal  initiative.  The  born-genius 
has  had  the  nature  and  type  of  the  focalization  of  his 
psychic  energv  determined  for  him,  for  example,  in 
the  line  of  artistic  or  of  mathematical  ability.  The 
genius  by  hard  work  chooses  for  himself  the  direction 
in  which  he  shall  focalize  his  energies — vocational 
counsellors  have  an  important  function  to  perform  In 
the  making  of  this  tvpe  of  genius.  The  persistent 
concentration  of  the  attention  of  an  ordinary  person 
in  one  line  of  mental  endeavor  will  give  that  indi- 
^•i(1nal  the  rank  of  a  leader  in  that  sphere. 

*A  term  used  by  Lester  F.  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  p.  36.  Cf. 
Ch.  XVITI  of  Pure  Sociology. 


Invention  and  Leadership  187 

Geniuses  by  virtue  of  deliberate  focalization  are  far 
more  numerous  than  born-geniuses.  They  are  better 
balanced,  more  practical,  but  less  brilliant  and  spec- 
tacular. They  are  the  product  of  the  individual's 
freedom  of  choice.  If  nature  has  not  focalized  one's 
psychic  energy  for  him,  he  may  do  so  for  himself. 

A  genius  is  often  a  person  "who  takes  infinite 
pains."  Many  a  student  deservedly  ranks  high,  be- 
cause of  his  capacity  to  work  indefinitely  at  the  details 
of  his  tasks,  while  at  the  same  time  he  gives  proper 
attention  to  fundamentals.  A  former  student  of  mine 
who  is  now  a  university  professor  would  work  inces- 
santly in  making  accurate  and  illuminating  charts  and 
graphs  to  illustrate  his  papers  in  each  of  his  classes. 
He  continually  did  more  than  was  required;  he  won 
promotion  because  he  worked  painstakingly. 

Furthermore,  a  leader  must  be  a  "moral  dynamo." 
He  must  command  confidence  and  respect  to  a  special 
degree.  Ideally,  he  must  be  master  of  himself  before 
he  can  maintain  the  esteem  and  especially  the  loyalty 
of  others.  To  the  extent  that  he  does  not  possess 
supreme  control  of  his  own  passions  and  desires  he  is 
handicapped  In  controlling  other  people.  Oftentimes 
he  must  have  moral  courage  to  stand  out  from  his  fel- 
lows and  even  against  them.  He  must  not  allow  him- 
self to  be  blown  about  or  to  run  slavishly  with  the 
crowd  and  public  opinion. 

The  successful  leader  must  possess  superior  Innate 
ability  and  faith  In  his  own  powers.  He  must  not 
boast  or  swagger,  but  exhibit  poise,  Indifference,  and 
self-control  under  danger.  By  virtue  of  his  excep- 
tional ability,  of  his  faith,  and  of  his  poise,  he  is  some- 


1 88  Social  Psychology 

what  inscrutable.  It  was  the  inscrutableness,  for  ex- 
ample, of  Washington  and  Grant  which  increased  their 
leadership-prestige. 

The  leader  is  a  seer.  At  least  he  sees  clearly  a  few 
of  the  fundamental  needs  of  his  group.  He  sees 
through  these  problems  to  their  solutions.  He  per- 
ceives what  the  times  demand  more  clearly  than  do  his 
fellows;  he  possesses  more  foresight  than  they.  He 
is  reasonable — socially  reasonable.  When  he  works 
through  group  problems  adequately  and  practically,  a 
position  of  leadership  is  assured  him. 

The  leader  is  emanatory.  He  throws  out  one  idea 
or  suggestion  after  another.  His  followers  turn  to 
him  for  new  ideas  and  proposals  as  plants  turn  toward 
the  sun  for  light  and  heat.  He  sends  out  programs. 
Dr.  Francis  E.  Clark,  or  "Father"  Clark,  the  founder 
of  the  United  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  an- 
nounced a  new  two-year  world  program  at  each  bien- 
nial convention.  One  program  would  not  be  carried 
out  completely  before  another  would  be  enunciated. 

The  leader  possesses  authority,  either  personal  or 
civil.  Personal  authority  .  springs  from  ability  plus 
training.  Civil  authority  comes  from  appointment  or 
election  to  office,  and  carries  with  it  the  prestige  of 
public  position  or  rank.  The  inefficient  may  receive 
political  preferment  and  occupy  for  a  time  a  position 
of  leadership.  Both  personal  and  civil  authority  may 
overbalance  the  individual  and  create  an  autocrat. 

The  ability  to  organize  individuals  often  makes  a 
leader.  To  arouse  individuals  in  support  of  a  new 
cause,  formulate  plans  of  organization,  analyze  the 
abilities  of  each  individual,  and  see  that  each  seeks  and 


Invention  and  Leadership  189 

finds  his  proper  place  in  the  organized  whole — these 
traits  constitute  leadership. 

The  leader  must  be  worthy  of  obedience.  Loyalty 
is  at  least  one-half  of  all  leadership-obedience  phe- 
nomena. Obedience  implies  confidence  in  the  pur- 
poses of  the  leader,  A  person  with  social  purposes 
commands  social  power.  In  brief,  leadership  involves 
societary  problems,  concentrated  attention  upon  these 
problems,  trial  and  error  methods,  searching  for  cor- 
rect solutions,  and  the  discovery  and  the  enacting  of 
societary  programs. 

A  leader  drives  or  draws.  In  a  military,  autocratic 
country  the  former  type  predominates ;  in  a  democratic 
nation,  the  latter  form  receives  recognition.  Among 
semi-civilized  tribes  leaders  are  usually  of  the  arbi- 
trary type;  among  highly  civilized  Christian  peoples, 
leaders  develop  the  finer  qualities  of  magnetism. 

The  autocratic  leader  is  commonly  a  representative 
of  a  powerful  organization.  He  personifies  borrowed 
force,  he  frequently  appropriates  impersonal,  arbitrary 
ways  from  the  institution  which  fosters  him.  In  a 
democracy  autocrats  are  hated.  If  the  leader  shows 
by  his  speech  and  actions  that  he  considers  himself  a 
social  superior,  he  courts  downfall.  Discharged  pri- 
vate soldiers  are  often  heard  to  say :  "I'm  through 
with  saluting  officers."  If  pressed  to  explain  their  at- 
titude, they  commonly  reply:  "When  we  were  over- 
seas, our  officers  'rode'  us."  Ordinarily,  autocracy  has 
no  place  among  the  leaders  in  a  democracy. 

The  magnetic  leader,  on  the  other  hand,  is  charac- 
terized by  his  willingness  to  serve.  He  is  human.  He 
is  of  the  herd  and  like  a  good  shepherd.     He  must  not 


190  Social  Psychology 

get  too  far  ahead  of  his  group  lest  its  members  fail  to 
recognize  him  and  ignore  him  or  even  crucify  him. 
If  a  leader  sincerely  and  unostentatiously  meets  group 
needs,  he  will  command  not  only  the  respect,  but  the 
love  of  his  followers. 

Leaders  are  primarily  executive  or  intellectual.  The 
difference  is  partly  in  heredity  and  partly  in  concen- 
tration of  attention.  The  executive  is  characterized 
by  greater  physical  force,  "push,"  and  energy,  but  by 
less  breadth  of  knowledge  and  by  less  depth  of  theo- 
retical thinking  than  the  intellectual  leader.  He  is 
usually  in  closer  contact  with  people  and  community 
conditions,  and  is  more  red-blooded  and  aggressive. 
He  generally  commands  the  higher  salary  and  receives 
recognition  from  society  sooner  than  the  leader  in 
scientific,  or  literary  thought.  The  intellectual  leader 
works  for  ends  that  are  farther  removed,  leads  a  less 
exhaustive  life,  enjoys  greater  freedom,  and  by  later 
generations  is  often  rated  higher. 

Leaders  are  either  group  manipulators,  group  repre- 
sentatives, group  builders,  or  group  originators.^  The 
group  manipulator  is  sensitive  to  group  emotions  and 
able  to  express  in  agreeable  ways  the  desires  of  the 
people.  Often  by  oratorical  or  spectacular  methods, 
he  obtains  wide  popularity,  political  preferment,  or 
great  wealth.  As  a  rule  he  fails  to  give  his  constit- 
uents adequate  returns  for  their  investment  in  him. 
His  objective  is  not  their  advantage  but  his  own  gain. 
He  frequently  leads  his  followers  after   false  gods. 

'The  classificaton  of  leaders  which  is  given  by  Martin  Conway 
in  Tlic  Crowd  in  Peace  and  War,  Chapters  VI-VIII,  unduly  ex- 
pands the  crowd  concept,  and  at  the  same  time  inadequately  pro- 
vides for  genuine  group  builders  and  originators. 


Invention  and  Leadership  191 

Having  once  gained  the  confidence  of  the  group,  he 
forces  his  will  upon  his  victims.  He  often  hypnotizes 
his  constituents.  In  this  class  there  is  the  advertiser 
who  announces  something  which  catches  the  fancy  but 
possesses  little  utility  or  beauty,  the  seller  of  oil  stock 
who  makes  dazzling  forecasts,  the  ward  boss  who 
promises  his  listeners  a  new  era  of  prosperity.  The 
group  manipulator  takes  note  of  the  vague  desires  of 
the  crowd,  crystallizes  these  inchoate  yearnings,  and 
capitalizes  them  in  terms  of  personal  aggrandizement. 
He  drives  his  subjects  hither  and  yon  at  vital  sacrifices 
to  themselves  and  not  infrequently  to  his  own  ultimate 
destruction.  His  strength  is  in  his  understanding  of 
human  nature  and  in  his  hypnotic  influence.  When 
these  fail,  he  is  lost.  No  leader  can  eventually  succeed 
who  smothers  or  stamps  out  the  self-expression  of  the 
group  members. 

The  group  representative,  while  a  personification  of 
the  unexpressed  feelings  as  well  as  of  the  formulated 
opinions  of  his  constituents,  is  also  the  spokesman  of 
their  will.  A  judge  is  a  group  representative.  Under 
the  pure  democratic  form  of  a  republic,  the  legislator 
is  expected  to  represent  public  opinion.  In  our  coun- 
try, we  often  fail  to  keep  our  legislators  apprised 
concerning  our  attitudes  even  on  fundamental  issues 
— unless  we  represent  professionally  a  special  interest. 
As  a  result,  legislators  are  continually  subjected  to  the 
danger  of  degenerating  into  manipulators  or  "politi- 
cians." 

The  gi'oup  builder,  in  the  deepest  sense  of  the  term, 
tries  to  find  out  the  best  interests  of  his  group  and  to 
lead  accordingly.     Selfish  desires  are  taboo.    The  con- 


192  Social  Psychology 

cern  of  such  a  leader  is  entirely  in  the  welfare  of  his 
fellows  and  in  helping  them  to  live  and  act  together 
with  increasing  harmony,  justice,  and  progress.  He 
is  willing  to  give  up  his  life  that  the  group  may  be 
saved.  He  determines  the  causes  of  social  friction, 
injustice,  or  inertia,  outlines  steps  of  reconstruction, 
and  pilots  the  way.  The  group  builder  works  through 
all  the  good  will  that  he  can  summon.  He  organizes 
social  good  will  within  his  group  and  harmonizes  an- 
tagonistic attitudes  wherever  possible  without  sacri- 
ficing societary  principles.  If  he  must  antagonize,  he 
proceeds  in  a  social  spirit  and  wherever  feasible  substi- 
tutes understanding  for  ignorance,  good  will  for  ill, 
and  organization  for  chaotic  strife.  He  does  not  try 
to  conquer,  for  conquering,  per  se,  fails  to  win  respect 
and  love,  and  leads  to  the  dangerous  desire  for  further 
conquering.  The  group  builder  tries  to  discover  what 
is  harmonious,  just,  and  constructive  for  his  group, 
and  then  endeavors  to  weave  these  ideals  into  the  life 
of  his  group. 

The  group  originator  is  first  possessed  by  a  great 
idea.  From  that  basis  he  proceeds  to  the  winning  of 
individuals  to  the  acceptance  of  that  idea.  He  may 
press  forward  through  organized  effort — the  common 
method  today — or  by  unorganized  activities,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity.  He  aims  to 
create  leaders,  to  stimulate  the  spirit  of  leadership  in 
conjunction  wi^h  the  spirit  of  obedience  in  every  indi- 
vidual, and  to  provide  for  the  largest  and  richest  de- 
velopment of  personalities. 

Special  talent  and  genius  produce  leaders  in  all 
fields,  but  what  are  the  conditions  under  which  these 


Invention  and  Leadership  193 

(Qualities  mature?  The  biologists  have  not  yet  given 
a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  appearance  of  special 
talent  and  of  genius.  The  fundamental  causes  are  not 
known.  Special  ability  is  as  likely,  or  almost  as  likely, 
to  appear  in  a  child  who  is  born  in  a  tenement  as  in 
one  who  is  born  in  a  mansion. 

The  appearance  of  special  ability  is  not  confined  to 
one  sex.  Historically,  woman  did  not  have  opportu- 
nity to  translate  her  latent  talent  into  achievement, 
and  hence  it  is  not  known  how  much  ability  woman 
possesses.  In  recent  decades,  however,  in  our  coun- 
try, woman  has  been  forging  ahead  rapidly  and  avail- 
ing herself  of  increasing  opportunities — a  tendency 
which  presages  a  greatly  augmented  degree  of  leader- 
ship on  her  part.  In  competing  with  men  in  nearly  all 
lines  of  human  endeavor  she  is  demonstrating  her 
versatile  abilities.  In  the  public  schools  today  girls 
remain  long  after  boys  become  uneasy  and  leave.  As 
a  class,  women  are  availing  themselves  of  a  more  lib- 
eral education  than  are  men.  Since  a  liberal  education 
is  basic  to  societary  leadership,  women  may  attain  the 
controlling  positions  in  forming  public  opinion  and 
hence  of  determining  the  nature  of  social  progress. 

It  is  generally  admitted — a  point  of  vast  significance 
— that  more  geniuses  are  born  than  ever  attain  promi- 
nence. The  belief  of  Galton  that  every  genius  will 
overcome  his  environment  and  push  his  way  through 
to  eminence*  is  ill  founded.  Disease,  poverty,  im- 
moral conduct  and  similar  factors  prevent  potential 
geniuses  from  reaching  the  maturity  of  their  powers 
and  even  cause  their  deaths  in  adolescence  or  child- 

^Hcrcditarv  Genius. 


194  Social  Psychology 

hood.  The  contention  of  Lombroso  that  the  genius 
is  a  pathological  phenomenon,  to  be  treated  as  a  mental 
degenerate,  or  even  as  an  insane  person,^  finds  support 
in  many  instances,  but  as  a  rule  is  manifestly  without 
scientific  standing.  The  strength  of  the  argument  lies 
in  the  fact  that  genius  often  represents  such  a  high  de- 
gree of  focalization  of  psychic  energy  in  some  one 
direction  that  the  individual  may  easily  become  un- 
balanced. 

If  we  grant  that  far  more  geniuses  are  born  than 
become  eminent,  we  must  learn  the  causes  of  this  social 
loss.  The  heart  of  the  matter  is  found  in  the  answer 
to  the  question :  What  are  the  necessary  conditions 
for  the  maturing  of  genius?  Odin,''  a  French  writer 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  Lester  F.  Ward,^  and  re- 
cently, G.  R.  Davies^  have  discussed  with  increasing 
scientific  accuracy  the  decisive  factors  in  transforming 
inherited  talent  and  special  ability  into  actual  achieve- 
ment. A  study  of  the  facts  shows  five  fundamental 
conditions,  (i)  A  social  environment  which  is  men- 
tally stimulating  is  necessary.  Genius  cannot  mature 
under  a  widespread  spell  of  mental  stagnation.  There 
must  be  mental  contacts  which  strike  fire  and  some 
general  appreciation  of  the  achievements  that  a  genius 
can  effect. 

(2)  As  a  rule,  thorough  training  is  necessary. 
There  are  few  successes  today  that  do  not  rest  upon  a 
complete  mastery  of  the  given  fields.  It  is  becoming 
increasingly  true  that  special  ability  must  have  a  com- 

T/i<'  Man  of  Genius. 
'Genese  des  grands  honimes. 
^Applied  Sociology,  Part  II. 
"Social  Environment,  Ch.  IV. 


Invention  and  Leadership  195 

mensurate  scholastic  and  practical  training  as  a  basis 
for  complete  self-expression.  The  greater  the  poten- 
tial ability  the  more  valuable  an  extensive  and  inten- 
sive training.  The  education  of  the  individual  must 
begin  early  in  life,  proceed  systematically,  and  be  pro- 
longed in  order  that  all  the  potential  qualities  may  be 
fully  and  permanently  developed. 

(3)  There  must  be  freedom  from  the  struggle  for 
bread.  If  energy  is  continually  expended  in  securing 
the  necessities  of  life,  genius  is  hampered.  There  must 
be  sufficient  means,  as  a  rule,  to  provide  opportunities 
of  travel  and  research.  The  individual  must  be  free 
to  provide  himself  with  the  best  tools  and  to  furnish 
himself  with  the  best  equipment  that  is  available — or 
else  fall  below  his  largest  possibilities. 

(4)  Genius  must  occupy  a  position  of  self-respect 
and  of  social  respect.  A  genius  is  handicapped  if  he 
grows  up  in  a  neighborhood  of  vile  associates,  as  a 
member  of  a  despised  race,  or  where  luxury  spreads 
an  enervating  virus. 

(5)  If  genius  is  not  socialized,  it  may  be  wasted  in 
anarchistic  or  anti-social  directions.  A  large  amount 
of  special  ability  is  squandered  simply  because  it  works 
at  cross  purposes  with  fundamental  social  processes. 

In  summing  up  the  discussion  on  genius  it  should  be 
said  that  genius  tends  to  create  its  own  opportunities, 
but  that  it  often  fails.  An  unenlightened  environment 
often  fails  to  give  ability  encouragement  or  even  recog- 
nition, and  it  dies  out  unrecognized  by  even  its  pos- 
sessor. The  impingement  of  the  economic  and  social 
environment  often  crushes  out  genius.  It  has  been 
estimated  that   for  every  genius  among  the  poorer 


196  Social  Psychology 

classes  who  attains  prominence,  99  remain  potential 
or  are  early  crushed  out.  Society  must  come  to  the 
rescue.  Complete  education  of  the  poorer  classes  will 
create  more  opportunities  for  development  of  talent 
and  genius  than  these  traits  can  make  for  themselves. 

In  this  connection  vocational  guidance  has  functions 
of  the  greatest  importance.  It  must  develop  methods 
for  detecting  geniuses  and  persons  who  are  capable  of 
becoming  geniuses  by  hard  work.  A  still  more  impor- 
tant function  is  to  diagnose  adolescents  and  encourage 
them  to  enter  lines  of  activity,  not  primarily  where 
they  can  earn  the  most  money,  but  where  they  can 
best  express  their  whole  personalities.  From  the  de- 
velopment of  a  rich  personality  arises  the  deepest  joys 
of  life  and  the  greatest  opportunities  for  societary 
leadership. 

The  summary  concerning  genius  involves  certain 
conclusions  regarding  the  larger  field  of  leadership. 
In  times  of  social  change,  unrest,  and  transition,  lead- 
ership is  at  a  premium.  In  periods  of  grave  social 
disturbance  and  distress,  the  autocratic  leader  is  the 
hero;  in  the  decades  of  gradual  social  evolution,  the 
magnetic  leader  is  the  effective  director  of  human 
events.  Since  much  of  the  history  of  the  world 
has  been  marked  by  social  upheaval  and  since  the 
world  loves  tlic  heroic  and  the  spectacular,  the  hero 
type  of  leadership  has  been  exalted  and  the  (juiet,  per- 
vasive, and  magnetic  type  underrated.  Under  all  con- 
ditions the  social  problem-solver  becomes  the  effective 
leader,  and  the  world's  problem-solvers  become  the 
world's  leaders.  Society,  on  the  other  hand,  must 
provide  society-wide  education  and  other  favoring  ad- 


Invention  and  Leadership  197 

vantages  in  order  that  problem-solving  ability  may 
have  ample  opportunities  for  unfolding.  The  world's 
problem-solvers  who  succeed  furthest  in  turning 
achievement  into  human  improvement  and  who  are 
the  most  successful  in  stimulating  the  socialized  creat- 
ive spirit  and  in  enriching  the  quality  of  personalities 
are  the  world's  greatest  leaders. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Whom  do  you  consider  the  five  greatest  lead- 
ers in  the  United  States  today? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  individual  ascendancy  as 
opposed  to  social  ascendancy? 

3.  Is  "the  proverbial  individualism  of  the  farmer" 
the  same  as  individuality  and  potential  leadership? 

4.  Why  are  we  blind  to  the  extent  of  our  indebt- 
edness to  society  and  "therefore  apt  to  imagine  our 
individualitv  much  more  pronounced  than  it  actually 
is"? 

5.  When  is  one's  personality  at  its  lowest  ebb? 

6.  Are  leaders  egotists  ? 

7.  Explain:    Be  your  own  Thomas  A.  Edison. 

8.  Illustrate:  A  leader  represents  a  localization 
of  psychic  energy. 

9.  Explain :  It  is  the  work  of  a  leader  "to  pull 
triggers  in  the  minds  of  his  followers." 

10.  Are  boys  who  are  reared  in  w^ealthy  homes,  or 
in  poor  homes,  the  more  likely  to  become  good  leaders? 

11.  Should  a  leader  draw  or  drive  people?    - 


198  Social  Psychology 

12.  Does  progress  in  social  stability  "lessen  the 
hero  values  of  the  leader,  and  exalt  his  directive  ca- 
pacity" ? 

13.  Who  is  the  better  leader,  he  who  presents  fully 
developed  programs  to  the  people,  or  he  who  stimu- 
lates the  people  to  suggest  and  develop  programs  them- 
selves ? 

14.  Can  a  student  do  closely  assigned  and  mapped- 
out  work  in  several  college  classes,  and  at  the  same 
time  develop  qualities  of  leadership? 

15.  Should  an  elected  leader  of  the  people  really 
represent  the  wishes  of  his  constituents,  or  should  he 
exercise  his  own  judgment? 

16.  Is  the  control  of  patronage  a  source  of  strength 
to  a  statesman? 

17.  Should  a  general  go  to  the  front  when  tech- 
nically he  can  direct  the  fighting  better  from  the  dis- 
tant headquarters? 

18.  How  can  a  leader  of  splendid  ability  but  of 
immoral  habits  be  prevented  from  demoralizing  the 
group  ? 

19.  Why  does  leadership  assume  maximum  impor- 
tance in  times  of  transition? 

20.  What  are  the  basic  qualities  of  a  successful 
[)ubHc  speaker? 

21.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  successful 
advertiser? 

22.  How  may  a  successful  advertiser  be  a  danger- 
ous member  of  society? 

23.  What  are  the  differences  between  convincing 
an  individual  in  the  classroom  and  convincing  him 
wlien  he  is  a  nu-mbcr  of  a  crowd? 


Invention  and  Leadership  199 

24.  What  arc  the  characteristics  of  a  successful 
yell  leader? 

25.  Why  do  the  sons  of  leaders  such  as  self-made 
men,  rarely  show  the  qualities  of  leadership  which 
their  fathers  manifested? 

26.  Why  is  the  term,  "self-made"  man,  erroneous? 

27.  Have  "all  advances  in  civilization"  been  due 
to  leaders? 

28.  Would  you  say  that  "the  obtrusiveness  of  per- 
sonality and  temperament  in  literature,  painting,  and 
music  is  a  sign  of  advancement  or  a  mark  of  back- 
wardness" ? 

29.  Should  leadership  in  the  family  be  centered  in 
one  person,  or  should  the  leadership  be  divided? 

30.  Do  women  generally  vote  as  their  husbands  in- 
dicate or  do  they  exercise  independent  judgment? 

31.  Are  the  rural  or  the  urban  communities  in  the 
United  States  in  the  greater  need  of  leadership? 

32.  Why  are  some  of  the  world's  most  valuable 
leaders  unpopular  ? 

33.  When  should  a  leader  be  an  agitator ;  when,  a 
compromiser;  and  when,  a  "standpatter"? 

34.  In  what  ways  can  you  distinguish  between  a 
demagogue  and  a  statesman? 

35.  Would  a  course  in  the  Social  Psychology  of 
Leadership  have  a  useful  place  in  the  college  curricu- 
lum? 

READINGS 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Ch.  V. 

The  Individual  and  Society,  Chs.  I,  V. 

Brent,  C.  H.,  Leadership. 


200  Social  Psychology 

Bruce,  H.  A.,  Psychology  and  Parenthood,  Ch.  III. 

Bristol,  L.  M.,  Social  Adaptation,  Chs.  XII,  XIII. 

Bryce,    James,    The    American    Commonwealth,    (revised    cdii.. 

1915),  Vol.  II,  Ch.  LXXIV. 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,  Lect.  I. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  IX. 

Social  Organisation,  Chs.  XXIII,  XXIV. 

Social  Process,  Ch.  VI. 

"Genius,  Fame,  and  the  Comparison  of  Races,"  Annals 

of  the  Atner.  Acad.,  IX:  317-58. 
Davies,  G.  R.,  Social  Environment,  Ch.  IV. 
Davis,  Jr.,  M.  M.,  Psychological  Interpretations  of  Society,  Ch. 

XV. 
Fiske,    John,    "Sociology    and    Hero-Worship,"    Atlantic    Mon.. 

XLVII :  75-84. 
Galton,  Francis,  Hereditary  Genius. 
Gowin,  E.  B.,  The  Executive  and  His  Control  of  lien. 
Howard,  G.  E.,  Social  Psychology,  (syllabus),  Sect.  XX. 
James,  William,  The  Will  to  Believe,  pp.  216-54. 

"Great    Men,    Great   Thoughts,    and   the    Environment," 

Atlantic  Mon.,  XLVI:  441-59. 
Joly,  Henri,  Psychologic  des  grands  homnies. 
Knowlson,  T.  S.,  Originality. 
Le  Bon,  Gustave,  The  Crowd,  Ch.  III. 
Leopold,  Lewis,  Prestige. 
Mason,  O.  T.,  Origins  of  Invention,  Ch.  I. 
Mumford,  Eben,  "The  Origins  of  Leadership,"  Amcr.  Jour,  of 

Sociol.,  XII:  216-40,  2)^7-97,  500-31. 
Nisbet,  J.  P.,  The  Insanity  of  Genius. 
Odin,  Alfred,  Genese  des  grands  hommes.  Tome  I. 
Robertson,  J.   M.,  "The  Economics  of  Genius,"   forum,  XXV: 

178-90. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  Ch.  XXI. 

Social  Psychology,  pp.  30-34. 

Tagore,  Rabindranath,  Personality. 

Tarda,  Gabriel,  La  logiqtie  so  dale,  Ch.  IV. 

Tcrman,  T.  M.,  "The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Leadership," 

Pedagog.  Sem.,  XI:  113-51. 
T...|rl,  A.   ].,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  XXVI,  XXVU. 


Invention  and  Leadership  201 

Ward,  L.  F.,   The  Psychic  Factors  in  Civilisation,  Clis.  XXIX- 
XXXI. 

Pure  Sociology,  Chs.  XVIII,  XIX. 

Applied  Sociology,  Part  II. 

Webster,   Hutton,   "Primitive   Individual   Ascendancy,"    Publica- 
tions of  the  Amer.  Sociological  Society,  XII:  46-60. 


Chapter  XI. 

THE  NATURE  OF  GROUPS 

/ 

Man  is  gregarious.     He  lives  and  moves  and  has 

his   being   in   associations.     Human   groups   may   be 

classified  as  either  temporary  or  permanent.     All  arc 

in  transition — even  the  so-called  permanent  groups. 

I.  Temporary  Groups.  Temporary  groups  are 
represented  by  the  crowd,  the  mob,  the  assembly,  and 
by  the  public  (a  quasi-temporary  form  of  associa- 
tion). 

Some  crowds  are  heterogeneous,  /.  e.,  are  composed 
of  persons  who  at  the  given  time  possess  conflicting 
purposes.  A  number  of  persons  at  a  busy  street  cor- 
ner are  a  heterogeneous  group — they  have  varied  pur- 
poses and  are  going  in  different  directions.  The  real 
crowd  is  homogeneous;  its  members  have  a  common 
aim.  Further,  each  member  is  aware  that  the  other 
individuals  are  stirred  by  the  same  purposes  as  he  is. 

The  homogeneous  crowd  must  have  a  leader.  It 
moves  frantically  until  it  gets  a  leader.  The  members 
of  a  homogeneous  crowd  ordinarily  suffer  a  lessened 
sense  of  individual  responsibility,  because  responsibil- 
ity is  distributed  among  all.  Anonymity  tends  to  pre- 
vail. Excitement  reigns,  feelings  rise,  and  the  ra- 
tional processes  of  thought  are  hindered.  The  mem- 
bers experience  a  heightened   state  of  suggestibility. 


The  Nature  of  Groups  203 

People  act  less  rationally  when  under  crowd  influence 
than  as  individuals.  Feelings  rather  than  reason  se- 
cure control.  Crowds  act  quickly  but  reason  slowly. 
The  crowd  is  recidivistic ;  its  members  revert  to  lower 
standards  than  ordinarily. 

Freedom  of  speech  is  rarely  tolerated  by  a  crowd; 
anyone  who  attacks  the  follies  of  the  crowd  is  hooted. 
A  crowd  of  capitalist  financiers  would  refuse  to  listen 
to  the  harangue  of  a  Bolshevist;  and  a  crowd  of  Bol- 
shevists would  not  sit  supinely  under  the  lashing  of  a 
capitalist. 

A  person  who  makes  an  important  decision  while 
under  the  influence  of  the  crowd  has  a  hard  struggle 
before  him.  Such  decisions  must  usually  be  followed 
consistently  by  personal,  thoughtful,  and  sincere  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  interested  people. 

To  get  people  together  in  a  crowd  offers  a  quick 
way  to  unify  them.  But  the  charlatan  and  mounte- 
bank are  prone  to  manipulate  people  through  crowd 
influence,  whereas  the  educated  advocate  confines  him- 
self to  addressing  assemblies.  To  address  a  crowd 
one  must  usually  belittle  himself  and  reap  a  harvest 
of  unstable  decisions. 

More  wild  enthusiasm  for  a  given  project  can  be 
created  in  a  crowd  than  anywhere  else.  But  such 
enthusiasm  is  generally  swift  to  vanish — it  lacks  the 
depth  which  is  worthy  of  any  important  enterprise. 

There  are  spectator  crowds  and  participator  crowds. 
The  spectator  group  may  be  single-  or  double-minded ; 
it  may  be  united  or  bi-partisan.  The  bi-partisan 
spectator  crowd  is  in  constant  danger  of  degener- 
ating.    An  athletic  contest  brings  out  two  spectator 


204  Social  Psychology 

crowds.  First  one  spectator  crowd  and  then  the 
other  will  give  vent  to  expressions  such  as  these : 
"Kill  them,"  "Give  -them  the  axe,"  "They  are  a  rotten 
bunch."  If  the  contest  is  close,  the  members  of  both 
spectator  crowds  will  likely  give  way  to  their  feelings 
and  revert  to  blindly  biased  and  almost  savage  parti- 
sanship— forgetting  that  the  fundamental  element  in 
the  contest  is  to  afford  physical  training  to  all  the  mem- 
bers of  both  teams  and  exhibitions  of  skill  for  the  en- 
joyment of  the  onlookers.  The  evils  of  intercollegiate 
athletics  thrive  because  of  recidivistic  tendencies  of 
spectator  crowds.  There  w^ould  be  no  intercollegiate 
football  games  were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  specta- 
tors— hence  the  responsibility  of  spectator  crowds  is 
grave.  If  the  influence  of  such  a  crowd  causes  stu- 
dents literally  to  hate  neighboring  educational  institu- 
tions, then  the  main  functions  of  athletics  and  educa- 
tion alike  have  been  prostituted. 

The  participator  crowd  is  a  mob.  It  is  a  group  of 
people  who  stone,  smash,  frighten,  burn,  kill.  The 
participator  crowd  may  be  constructive,  but  usually  be- 
comes vicious.  The  mob  is  a  group  of  persons  in  an 
unusually  high  state  of  suggestibility.  It  is  a  crowd 
that  has  l)ecome  frantic.  It  is  not  necessarily  a  group 
of  ignorant  or  wicked  persons,  but  often  is  a  group  of 
ordinarily  intelligent  individuals  who  for  the  time  be- 
ing have  resigned  their  individual  standards.  The 
mob  is  a  monster,  possessing  gigantic  power  which 
causes  it  to  throb  throughout  its  being.  It  is  a  tor- 
nado, using  its  pent-up  forces  irresponsibly  and  ruth- 
lessly. 

The  niol)  curve  rises  bv  a  succession  of  curves  until 


The  Nature  of  Groups  205 

the  objective  of  the  mob  is  attained  or  until  its  force 
is  spent.  Then  the  curve  falls  rapidly,  almost  help- 
lessly perpendicular. 

Panic  is  a  mob  phenomenon  that  is  caused  by  sud- 
den and  overwhelming  fear.  Napoleon  was  right 
when  he  instructed  his  officers  to  tell  their  men  of 
danger  beforehand  in  a  quiet,  non-exaggerated  way. 
In  a  panic  the  self-preservation  instinct  rules  abso- 
lutely and  violently. 

On  September  28,  19 19,  when  the  mayor  of  Omaha 
attempted  to  quiet  the  mob  that  was  searching  for  a 
Negro,  the  mob  threw  a  rope  around  the  neck  of  the 
mayor,  dragged  him,  and  attempted  to  hang  him — 
the  chief  executive  of  a  metropolitan  city  and  the 
elected  representative  of  lav/  and  order.  It  is  clear, 
therefore,  that  such  a  mob  is  a  relic  of  barbarism;  it 
has  no  useful  function  in  a  democratic  state,  built 
upon  principles  of  legal  justice.  The  atrocities  which 
a  mob  will  commit,  whether  it  be  a  mob  of  Russian  or 
Polish  peasants  in  a  "pogrom"  or  a  mob  of  American 
citizens  in  a  lynching  escapade  are  execrable.  They 
can  successfully  be  prevented  only  by  a  new  birth  of 
respect  for  social  order  and  systematic  progress. 

An  assembly  is  a  group  of  people  in  which  ideas 
rather  than  feelings  are  struggling  with  one  another 
for  supremacy.  An  assembly  is  characterized  by  dig- 
nity, order,  and  thoughtfulness.  It  is  so  closely  re- 
lated to  the  crowd  that  it  is  subject  to  reversion  at  any 
moment  to  the  crowd  or  mob.  An  assembly  is  a 
group  of  people  who  are  controlled  by  cultural  habits 
and  by  parliamentary  rules  of  order.  On  occasion  an 
assembly  as  dignified  as  the  United  States  Senate  dc- 


2o6  Social  Psychology 

fies  the  controlling  sense  of  individual  and  social  de- 
corum and  the  rules  of  order. 

Parliamentary  rules  have  been  compared  by  E.  A. 
Ross  to  a  straight] acket  upon  a  monster  which  is  in 
constant  danger  of  breaking  loose/  Rules  of  order 
function  in  keeping  feelings  down  and  the  reason  in 
charge.  Personalities  are  taboo,  the  chair  must  al- 
ways be  addressed,  the  voting  must  be  by  aye  and  nay, 
and  order  must  at  all  times  be  observed.  Parliament- 
ary rules  at  best  are  brittle  hoops  and  easily  snap.  Let 
one  man  contradict  another  sharply  and  the  two  may 
rush  together  with  clenched  fists  and  angry  shouts, 
even  though  the  assembly  be  a  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
Let  the  smell  of  smoke  and  a  ringing  cry  of  "Fire" 
enter  a  crowded  church  and  the  solemn  assembly  will 
burst  the  bonds  of  decorum,  custom,  rules,  and  rever- 
ence, and  transform  itself  into  a  fighting  mob,  tramp- 
ling women  and  children  under  foot. 

The  assembly  is  a  very  useful  social  institution. 
Time,  expense,  and  energy  are  saved  by  getting  people 
to  come  together  and  by  addressing  them  as  a  unit 
rather  than  as  separate  individuals  who  are  scattered 
over  a  large  territory.  To  assemble  people  and  ex- 
plain thoughtfully  a  program  to  them  secures  better 
results  than  to  yell  at  them  in  a  crowd.  They  gain 
sufficient  stimulus  to  jar  them  out  of  lethargy  and  yet 
not  such  an  amount  that  they  effervesce  in  unstable 
promises. 

The  assembly  not  only  arouses  people  from  social 
drowsiness  and  repose,  but  gives  them  new  desires  and 
interests.     An    assembly    often    shakes    people    loose 

^Social  Psychology,  p.  57. 


The  Nature  of  Groups  207 

from  selfish  habits  and  secures  their  open,  thoughtful 
committal  to  group  aims,  to  financial  support  of 
group  movements,  and  participation  in  group  activi- 
ties. When  in  an  assembly,  the  socially  reflected  self 
of  an  individual  affects  him  powerfully.  He  adopts  a 
broader  viewpoint  than  he  would  accept  at  home.  He 
is  influenced  also  by  the  personality  of  the  leader,  who 
is  usually  an  individual  of  character.  Through  the 
spoken  word,  clothed  in  the  richness  of  his  personality, 
the  speaker  can  exert  a  powerful  and  constructive  in- 
fluence. 

An  assembly  can  be  addressed  frequently  to  better 
advantage  than  an  individual.  The  speaker  does  not 
experience  the  embarrassment  which  he  feels  when 
conversing  upon  a  delicate  phase  of  the  individual's 
conduct.  He  can  suggest  to  an  assembly  moral  and 
social  changes  which  would  be  taken  as  an  insult  if 
made  personally  to  certain  offenders  who  may  be  in 
the  assembly.  There  is  just  enough  anonymity  to 
enable  individuals  who  need  reprimand  to  say  to  them- 
selves, "He  means  some  one  else,"  and  yet  there  is 
enough  force  in  the  speaker's  remarks  to  penetrate 
their  lives  deeply.  There  is  sufficient  anonymity  to 
enable  them  to  look  unconcerned  and  to  prevent  their 
anger  from  rising,  thereby  allowing  the  new  and 
higher  standards  of  conduct  a  thoughtful  and  fair 
hearing.  Similar  criticism  of  personal  conduct,  if 
administered  individually  or  vehemently  in  a  crowd, 
would  arouse  an  angry  storm  or  a  long-standing  an- 
tagonism. 

Despite  its  worthy  traits,  an  assembly  ^of  size  is 
rarelv  a  satisfactorv  deliberative  or  executive  bodv. 


2o8  Social  Psychology 

A  committee  of  thirty  is  too  large  for  effective  work 
because  the  chief  points  for  decision  become  lost  in  the 
idiosyncrasies  of  thirty  different  personalities.  Five 
or  seven  well-selected  persons  will  constitute  a  group 
large  enough  to  bring  forward  all  the  main  factors  in 
a  given  problem  and  at  the  same  time  work  expedi- 
tiously. Each  will  assume  more  responsibility  than 
the  individual  members  of  a  committee  of  thirty. 

Discussion  is  necessary,  but  too  much  talk  hinders 
progress.  A  large  committee  produces  an  excess  of 
talk.  To  safeguard  a  committee  against  wasting  its 
energies  in  verbiage  as  well  as  to  guarantee  a  strong 
sense  of  individual  responsibility,  the  members  must 
be  few. 

The  public  is  a  quasi-temporar}^  group.  It  lacks 
the  structure  and  prescribed  limits  of  a  permanent 
group  and  the  face-to-face  or  bodily  presence  charac- 
teristics of  the  assembly  or  crowd.  It  is  a  group  "with- 
out presence."  Although  w^ithout  the  physical  pres- 
ence of  its  members,  it  possesses  a  substantial  degree 
of  permanence.  It  is  made  possible  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  modern  means  of  communication.  Conse- 
quently, individuals  feel,  think,  and  even  act  alike, 
without  coming  together.  The  public  is  a  recently  de- 
veloped communicating  group  without  physical  pres- 
ence. 

The  public  is  made  possible  by  the  invention  of  the 
printing  press,  the  railroad,  the  telegraph,  and  the 
telephone.  The  printing  press  has  been  given  pri- 
mary credit  by  Sighcle  for  creating  the  public  and 
substituting  it  for  the  crowd.-     The  railroad  shortens 

"I.d  foitlr  cr'nnincUe,  p.  225. 


The  Nature  of  Groups  209 

distances  and  enables  newspapers  to  reach  the  out- 
skirts of  cities  and  even  remote  rural  localities  in  a 
comparatively  short  time.  Further,  the  telegraph  has 
almost  eliminated  distance,  permitting  any  news  to 
travel  thousands  of  miles  in  a  few  minutes.  Hence 
the  railroad  and  the  telegraph  give  wings  to  the  print- 
ing-press and  the  feeling  of  actuality  to  the  public.'' 

Each  reading  public  tends  to  develop  its  own  type 
of  journalism  and  to  produce  newspapers  which  have 
its  own  good  and  bad  qualities  and  which  are  its  own 
creatures.^  Large  numbers  of  people  who  are  scat- 
tered over  a  wide  territory  regularly  read  the  news 
organs  of  the  given  publics  to  which  they  belong,  feel 
simultaneously  the  same  way  in  regard  to  the  wanton 
attack  upon  anything  which  belongs  to  a  given  public, 
and  express  their  feelings  and  opinions  simultane- 
ously, being  aware  that  at  the  same  time  the  other 
members  of  that  public  are  experiencing  the  same  feel- 
ings and  giving  expression  to  the  same  opinions. 

A  staunch  member  of  the  Republican  party  sub- 
scribes only  to  Republican  newspapers.  If  handed  a 
socialist  journal,  he  would  feel  insulted.  The  social- 
ist subscribes  faithfully  to  the  socialistic  press,  but 
tears  up  Republican  newspapers  without  deigning  to 
look  at  their  headlines.  The  churchman  peruses  reg- 
ularly the  religious  journals  of  his  choice,  but  casts  out 
the  free-thinking  publications,  while  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood the   free-thinker   scoffs  at   religious  papers. 

'/&ic?.,  pp.  225,  226.  Cf.  Gabriel  Tarde,  L'opinion  et  la  foule, 
Ch.  I. 

*Ihid.,  p.  241.  "Sans  doute  chaque  public  produit  les  journal- 
istes  que  ont  ses  instincts,  ses  tendencies  ses  qualities,  et  scs 
defauts,  qui  sont,  in  un  mot,  es  creatures." 


2IO  Social  Psychology 

Each  public,  therefore,  creates  and  fosters  its  own 
instruments  of  communication.  What  would  happen 
in  the  United  States  if  for  one  year  all  Republicans 
were  to  read  only  socialist  newspapers  and  all  socialists 
were  to  read  only  the  Republican  press? 

Within  the  public  the  newspaper  is  tempted  to  cater 
to  the  low^er  nature  of  its  members.  The  commercial 
newspaper  finds  that  it  pays  financially  to  become 
sensational,  to  appeal  to  prejudices,  or  to  stimulate 
morbidity.  The  daily  press  is  prone  to  omit  the  pub- 
lication of  vital  social  facts,  or  to  minimize  them,  and 
to  elaborate  the  minor  details  of  burglaries,  divorce 
scandals,  prize  fights. 

The  newspaper  often  plays  its  own  public  against 
other  publics.  Consequently,  the  naive  reader  gets  a 
biased  view  of  his  own  group  and  an  erroneous  im- 
pression of  opposing  groups.  What  labor  newspaper 
relates  the  good  deeds  of  employers,  and  what  capi- 
talist paper  extolls  the  long-suffering  and  heart-yearn- 
ing of  the  wage-earner  and  his  family? 

The  public  is  deficient  in  some  of  the  virtues  of  the 
assembly  and  is  not  subject  to  all  the  weaknesses  of 
the  crowd.  To  the  extent  that  newspapers  suppress 
the  truth  or  play  upon  the  feelings,  or  by  "scare" 
headlines  create  false  sentiments,  the  public  is  the 
victim  of  the  foibles  of  the  crowd.  To  the  degree  in 
which  the  members  of  a  public  can  sit  quietly  in  the 
home  or  office  and  think  logically,  they  possess  ad- 
vantages superior  even  to  those  of  the  assembly. 

An  individual  can  belong  to  only  one  crowd  or 
assembly  at  a  time,  but  he  usually  claims  member- 
ship in  several  publics  at  the  same  moment.     He  may 


The  Nature  of  Groups  211 

belong  simultaneously  to  a  Taft  public,  a  Billy  Sun- 
day public,  a  Ty  Cobb  public,  and  a  John  McCormack 
public.  His  interests  as  a  member  of  one  public  may 
run  counter  to  his  interests  as  a  member  of  another; 
hence,  he  will  be  compelled  to  pair  off  impulses  and 
to  act  more  rationally  than  if  a  member  of  a  face-to- 
face  group.  The  twentieth  century  is  becoming  "an 
era  of  publics" ;  the  public  is  succeeding  the  crowd 
as  a  prevalent  form  of  grouping. 

In  times  of  national  danger  from  without,  an  entire 
nation  becomes  a  public.  Smaller  publics  subordinate 
their  interests  to  the  larger  cause.  Instead  of  sev- 
eral publics,  each  with  its  own  set  of  opinions,  or  pub- 
lic opinions,  there  arises  suddenly  one  vast  public, 
and  one  powerful  public  opinion. 

The  subject  of  group,  or  public,  opinion  will  be 
presented  in  Chapter  XIV,  as  an  agent  of  group,  or 
social,  control.  The  public  is  the  transition  group 
between  temporary  and  permanent  aggregations  or 
organizations  of  people,  and  public  opinion  is  the 
source  from  which  arise  fundamental  group  values. 

2.  Permanent  Groups.  There  are  at  least  four- 
teen different  important  types  of  permanent  groups, 
ranging  from  an  association  of  two  persons  to  the 
world  group.  These  types  are  the  family,  the  play 
group,  the  neighborhood  group,  the  school  group,  the 
occupational  group,  the  employees'  and  the  employers' 
groups,  the  fraternal,  the  political  and  governmental, 
the  religious,  the  racial,  and  the  sex  groups,  and  the 
planetary  group.  These  collectivities  suffer  changes 
fluctuating  between  slow  and  rapid,  and  exhibit  or- 
ganizations varying  from  closely  knit  and  exclusive 


212  Social  Psycholog}^ 

to  coherent  and  intangible. 

Permanent  groups  are  the  outgrowth  of  temporary 
groupings — the  relationship  is  filial.  The  order  of 
development  is  as  follows:  first,  human  needs,  then  a 
temporary  group  to  meet  those  needs,  finally,  the  evo- 
lution of  a  permanent  group  or  social  organization. 
Out  of  countless  temporary  groupings,  a  few  perma- 
nent types  have  attained  historical  prominence,  but 
continuously  subject  to  change  and  to  the  laws  of 
social  evolution. 

The  family,  for  example,  has  developed  in  response 
to  the  needs  of  race  continuance;  it  has  gone  through 
the  metronymic  and  patronymic  stages  and  is  now  in 
a  transitional  period,  from  which  there  is  arising  a 
co-operative  commonwealth  of  the  two  contracting 
parties.  The  family  has  run  the  gauntlet  of  polyan- 
dry, polygyny,  and  other  forms  of  marriage,  and  has 
achieved  a  worthy  degree  of  usefulness  through 
monogamy. 

An  occupational  group,  likewise,  shows  an  evolu- 
tion, which  is  of  the  following  order :  human  needs, 
crude  ways  of  meeting  these  needs,  the  invention  of 
methods  and  tools,  the  rise  of  specialization,  the  con- 
scious, unconscious,  or  accidental  gravitating  of  cer- 
tain individuals  into  the  given  occupational  group,  the 
appearance  of  a  definite  occupational  or  caste  con- 
sciousness, and  the  estal)lishmcnt  of  an  occupational 
ethics  and  of  occupational  organizations.  In  socie- 
tary  beginnings,  men  were  hunters  and  fighters,  and 
later,  herdsmen ;  women  were  untrained  home-makers, 
crude  hoe-culturists,  and  crass  manufacturers.  Under 
settled  social  conditions  men  transferred  their  atten- 


The  Nature  of  Groups  213 

tion  to  hoe-culture  and  transformed  it  into  agricul- 
ture, and  to  manufacture  and  ultimately  changed  it 
into  machinofacture.  The  higher  needs  of  life,  free- 
dom from  manual  toil,  and  the  demand  for  specializa- 
tion produced  the  professions. 

Occupations  prejudice.  The  banker  depreciates  the 
ministry,  and  vice  versa.  The  theologian  tends  to  be- 
come dogmatic.  The  business  man  is  prone  to  judge 
by  money  standards.  Since  lawyers  continually  come 
in  contact  with  anti-social  individuals  who  must  be 
dealt  with  vigorously,  they  are  apt  to  overrate  force 
as  a  social  factor.  Further,  the  lawyer  is  an  advo- 
cate. After  a  time  the  habit  of  taking  sides  may 
hinder  him  from  becoming  judicial.  When  he  reaches 
the  bench,  he  may  tend  to  argue  cases  for  the  lawyers, 
or  he  may  make  up  his  mind  habitually  early  in  the 
case  and  before  the  evidence  is  all  in.  "I  have  no 
objection,  your  Honor,  to  have  you  argue  this  case 
for  me,"  said  a  prosecuting  attorney,  "but  I  hope  that 
yon  won't  lose  it,  for  I  have  a  mighty  good  case." 
This  attorney  was  gently  protesting  against  the  occu- 
pational habit  which  the  given  judge  had  carried  over 
into  his  judicial  days  from  his  previous  training  as 
an  advocate. 

When  a  college  professor  applied  to  a  labor  union 
for  membership,  he  was  told  that  he  must  teach  in 
the  class-room  eight  hours  a  day  if  he  would  be 
admitted.  The  skilled  workmen  could  not  under- 
stand how  less  than  eight  hours  of  actual  teaching 
could  constitute  a  day's  work.  The  social  psychology 
of  occupations  and  professions  shows  that  occupa- 
tional and  professional  habits  of  thought  are  danger- 


214  Social  Psychology 

ous  to  one  who  would  be  just  and  courteous  in  his 
attitudes  toward  those  who  are  employed  differently. 

Permanent  groups  vary  from  purely  instinctive  to 
socially  purposive.''  The  best  illustration  of  purely 
instinctive  grouping  is  found  among  animals,  e.  g., 
insect  societies.  The  primitive  horde  and  the  family 
are  less  instinctive  than  an  insect  society.  The  mod- 
ern family  including  courtship  is  often  instinctive,  al- 
though showing  a  few  signs  of  conscious  purpose  that 
are  worthy  of  these  institutions.  The  modern  state 
is  largely  instinctive,  although  Germany  recently 
showed  a  national  purposiveness  of  anti-social  char- 
acter. Economic  organizations,  such  as  corporations 
and  labor  unions,  are  distinctly  purposive.  Educa- 
tional associations  are  strikingly  telic.  Purposive 
groups  vary  from  organizations  which  struggle  vigor- 
ously for  their  own  advancement  irrespective  of  the 
welfare  of  other  groups  or  of  society  to  those  which 
wholeheartedly  and  unselfishly  strive  to  serve  where- 
ever  they  may. 

Permanent  groups,  thus,  begin  with  the  purely  in- 
stinctive aggregations  at  the  lowest  extremity  of  the 
social  scale,  include  transitional  types,  and  end  with 
the  purely  telic  groups  with  social  purposes.  Nation- 
states  are  still  far  l)elow  the  highest  stage  of  unselfish 
telic  development,  and  hence  the  difficulty  In  establish- 
ing a  stable  League  of  Nations. 

Permanent  groups  are  either  sects,  castes,  classes, 

''J.  M.  Baldwin  in  The  Individual  and  Society,  pp.  36  flF., 
classifies  groups  as  instructive,  spontaneous,  and  reflective. 

'This  classification  has  been  outlined  by  Continental  writers, 
such  as  Tardc  {L'opinion  et  la  fonle,  pi).  177  flF. ),  and  Sighelc 
(Psychologic  des  scctcs,  pp.  ^15  fF.) 


The  Nature  of  Groups  215 

or  states.^  The  sect  is  a  group  of  individuals  who 
differ  markedly  but  who  are  united  by  a  common 
ideal  and  faith — such  as  religious  denominations  and 
political  parties. 

The  caste  arises  from  identity  of  profession ;  it  is 
the  most  compact  of  all  social  organizations.  After 
a  person  has  become  established  in  a  profession  he 
has  become  a  member  of  an  existing  caste  and  is 
under  its  esprit  de  corps.  Consider  how  difficult  it  is 
for  a  man  to  change  from  one  recognized  profession 
to  another  line  of  activity  and  what  contumely  is 
heaped  upon  the  clergyman  who  changes  to  the  insur- 
ance business,  upon  the  lawyer  who  shifts  to  brick- 
laying, upon  the  teacher  who  becomes  a  dairyman. 
It  is  disgraceful  to  change  from  a  higher  to  a  so- 
called  lower  calling,  even  though  a  mistake  was  made 
in  the  initial  choice  of  an  occupation.  It  is  even  a 
doubtful  or  questioned  procedure  for  a  person  who 
has  reached  middle  life  to  change  from  a  lower  to  a 
so-called  higher  calling,  even  though  the  individual 
has  been  converted  to  an  entirely  new  view  of  life. 
Nevertheless,  this  inelasticity  in  public  opinion  is  on 
the  whole  justifiable,  despite  the  fact  that  in  the  broad 
sense  it  creates  castes. 

The  class  possesses  a  psychological  bond  that  is 
found  in  a  unity  of  interests.  The  class  is  less  pre- 
cise in  its  limits  but  more  "formidably  belligerent"  in 
its  attitudes  than  the  caste.  Observe  the  outstanding 
class  divisions  of  the  day,  such  as  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  laboring  and  capitalistic  classes,  with  their 
bickerings,  strifes,  intrigues,  and  underlying  hatreds. 

States  are  the  most  extensive  group  organizations 


2i6  Social  Psychology 

with  strong  prerogatives  that  have  yet  evolved.  They 
possess  common  bonds  of  language,  national  values, 
and  national  prestige.  National  loyalty,  which  is 
somewhat  synonymous  with  patriotism,  will  be  con- 
sidered in  Chapter  XIII.  Conflicts  between  nations 
and  the  social  psychology  of  war  will  be  discussed  in 
Chapter  XII.  The  natural  climax  of  the  state  idea 
is  now  taking  form  in  a  world  organization  or  world 
state,  which  among  permanent  groups  will  eventually 
occupy  the  chief  position. 

PROBLEMS 

(TEMPORARY  GROUPS) 

1.  Define  a  crowd. 

2.  Are  the  people  in  a  railroad  station  a  hetero- 
geneous or  homogeneous  crowd? 


r  r' 


3.  Why  does  the  crowd  generally  have  a  leader 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  and  the  disadvan- 
tages of  organized  cheering? 

5.  Why  is  one's  individuality  wilted  in  a  dense 
throng  ? 

6.  Why  do  feelings  run  through  a  crowd  more 
readily  than  ideas? 

7.  In  order  to  unify  people  why  is  it  necessary 
to  touch  the  chord  of  feeling? 

8.  Why  is  the  crowd-self  irrational? 

9.  Explain :     "In  a  psychological  crowd  people 
arc  out  of  themselves." 

10.  Explain  :     A  crowd  is  rccidivistic. 

11.  Why  does  a  crowd  refuse  to  tolerate  freedom 
of  speech? 


The  Nature  of  Groups  217 

12.  Why  is  the  crowd-self  ephemeral? 

13.  Explain:  "The  squeeze  of  the  crowd  tends 
to  depress  the  self-sense." 

14.  Where  did  parliamentary  rules  of  order 
originate? 

15.  Is  a  jury  a  crowd  or  an  assembly? 

16.  Are  your  highest  emotions  aroused  when  you 
arc  alone  or  a  member  of  a  crowd? 

17.  Do  you  feel  a  serious  loss  more  keenly  when 
3^ou  are  alone  or  in  a  group  of  friends? 

18.  Will  the  news  of  personal  success  cause  you 
greater  joy  when  you  are  alone  or  in  a  group? 

19.  What  effect  will  your  study  of  the  social  psy- 
chology of  the  crowd  have  upon  your  attitude  toward 
the  crowd  ? 

20.  What  is  your  present  attitude  toward  a  lyncli- 
ing  mob  ? 

21.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term,  mob? 

22.  Have  you  been  in  a  mob?  If  so,  how  did  you 
act? 

23.  Is  a  holiday  jam  in  a  railroad  station  a  mob? 

24.  Is  the  social  psychology  of  a  mob  of  Hotten- 
tots the  same  as  the  social  psychology  of  a  mob  of 
college  professors? 

25.  Where  can  the  blame  for  mob  action  justly 
be  placed? 

26.  What  are  the  best  means  for  bringing  a  mob 
to  a  rational  point  of  view? 

27.  What  is  your  attitude  regarding  an  assembly? 

28.  What  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  an  assem- 
bly? 

29.  Name  three  tvpes  of  assemblies. 


2i8  Social  Psychology 

30.  Why  is  it  easier  to  speak  to  an  audience  of 
200  people  than  to  a  group  of  twenty  persons? 

31.  Is  it  easier  to  address  200  persons  in  a  hall 
that  seats  1000  or  in  one  which  seats  150? 

32.  What  are  the  outstanding  characteristics  of 
a  public? 

33.  Name  three  leading  publics  to  which  you  now 
belong. 

34.  Explain  the  statement  that  this  is  an  era  of 
publics. 

35.  What  is  mass  attention? 

36.  What  are  the  different  ways  by  which  an  in- 
dividual can  secure  mass  attention? 


(PERMANENT  GROUPS) 

37.  Define  a  group. 

38.  Distinguish  between  permanent  and  temporary 
groups. 

39.  In  what  permanent  groups  have  you  partici- 
pated today? 

40.  Name    one    temporary    group    in    which    you 
have  been  a  member  today. 

41.  How  are  the  two  sex  groups  different  psy- 
chically ? 

42.  How  is  a  fraternal  group  different  psychically 
from  a  neighborhood  group? 

43.  What  is  meant  by  the  social  psychology  of  an 
occupation  ? 

44.  What  are  the  psychical  differences  between  a 
rural  an<1  an  urban  group? 

45.  h'xplain  :     "The  liigh  potential  of  a  city." 


The  Nature  of  Groups  219 

46.  Should  the  capital  of  a  commonwealth  be  "its 
chief  city  or  some  centrally  located  town"? 

47.  Distinguish  between  the  psychical  characteris- 
tics of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Washington,  the  in- 
tellectual, business,  and  political  capitals,  respectively, 
of  the  nation. 


READINGS 

(TEMPORARY  GROUPS) 

Christensen,  Arthur,  Politics  and  Crowd-Morality. 

Conway,  Martin,  The  Crowd  in  Peace  and  War. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organisation,  Ch.  XIV. 

Davenport,  F.  M.,  Primitive  Traits  in  Religious  Revivals. 

Eltinge,  Le  Roy,  Psychology  of  War,  Part  II. 

Galsworthy,  John,  The  Mob. 

Gardner,  C.  S.,  "Assemblies,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol.,  XIX:  53i- 

55 ;  and  in  Psychology  and  Preaching,  Chs.  XI,  XIII. 
Hamilton,     C.,    "Psychology    of    Theater    Audiences,"    Forum, 

XXXIX :  234-48. 
Howard,   G.   E.,   "Social   Psychology  of   the   Spectator,"   Amer. 

Jour,  of  Sociol,  XVIII:  33-50. 
Le  Bon,  Gustave,  The  Crowd. 

"Psicologia  della  folia,"  Riv.  ital.  di  sociol..  Ill :  168-95. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  III-V. 

Foundations  of  Sociology,  Chs.  V,  VI. 

Sedwick,  H.  D.,  "The  Mob  Spirit  in  Literature,"  Atlantic  Mon., 

XCVI:9-i5- 
Sidis,  Boris,  "A  Study  of  the  Mob,"  Atlantic  Mon.,  LXXV:  188- 

97. 
Sighele,  Scipio,  La  foiile  criminelle. 
Tarde,  Gabriel,  The  Laws  of  Imitation,  pp.  154-73- 

L'opinion  et  la  fotile,  Chs.  I,  II. 

Tawney,  J.  A.,  "The  Nature  of  Crowds,"  Psychological  Bui.,  II : 

329-33- 


220  Social  Psychology 

(PERMANENT  GROUPS) 

Brinton,  D.  G.,  The  Basis  of  Social  Relations,  Pari  I,  Chs.  II-IV. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organisation,  Ch.  Ill,  Part  IV. 
Fouillee,  A.,  Equisse  psychologiqiie  des  peiiples  europeens. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Democracy  and  Empire,  Ch.  XIX. 
LeBon,  Gustave,  The  Psychology  of  Peoples. 
Maclver,  R.  M.,  Community,  Bk.  I,  Ch.  II;  Bk.  II,  Chs.  II,  IIJ. 
McComas,  H.  C,  The  Psychology  of  Religious  Sects. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  VI. 
Simmel,  G.,  "The  Persistence  of  Social  Groups,"   (tr.  by  A.  W. 
Small),  Amer.   Jour,   of  Sociol.,   111:662-89,  829-36,    IV: 
35-50. 
Smith,  W.  R.,  A)i  Introduction   to  Educational  Sociology,  Chs. 

IV-VI. 
Thomas,  Helen  T.,  "The  Psychology  of  Sex,"  Psychological  Bm., 

XI :  353-79- 
Wallas,  Graham,  Human  Nature  in  Politics,  Part  II,  Ch.  I\'. 


Chapter  XII. 
GROUP  CONFLICTS 

I.  TJic  Nature  and  Function  of  Group  Co7iflicts. 
Conflicts  between  groups  are  vital  group  phenomena 
which  arise  from  primitive  struggles  for  existence. 
These  struggles  are  motivated  by  the  fighting  instinct. 
Pugnaciousness  in  the  individual  when  combined  with 
pugnaciousness  in  other  individuals  assumes  mass  pro- 
portions, organized  methods,  and  gigantic  power. 
Families  compete  with  families  for  social  standing, 
business  vies  with  business  for  trade,  and  nations  war 
with  nations  for  commercial  advancement  and  terri- 
torial expansion. 

Conflicts  occur  continually  between  the  individual 
and  his  group.  The  small  son  defies  both  parents, 
the  adolescent  boy  violates  the  rules  of  the  team,  the 
adult  breaks  the  laws  of  society.  An  individual  be- 
comes a  leader  of  a  clientele  and  the  conflict  becomes 
one  between  a  minority  and  the  parent  group.  A  new 
idea  is  expressed  by  some  strong-minded  individual, 
and  immediately  other  individuals  begin  to  allign 
themselves  with  or  against  the  new  propaganda.  The 
leader  and  the  adherents  of  the  new  program  enter 
into  conflict  with  the  parent  organization. 

Conflicts  between  groups  are  sometimes  primarily 
open  and  announced,  as  in  the  case  of  political  parties 
in  a  national  election.     They  are  frequently  conducted 


222  Social  Psychology 

under  cover  and  behind  apparently  friendly  advances, 
e.  g.,  rivalries  between  business  houses.  Even  in 
open  political  campaigns,  it  is  often  difficult  to  learn 
the  attitude  of  various  influential  organizations,  be- 
cause of  secret  alliances  and  agreements. 

Certain  conflicts  are  highly  destructive;  others  are 
mutually  advantageous.  The  conflict  between  a  cor- 
poration and  a  competitive  individual  entrepreneur 
usually  ends  in  the  destruction  or  at  least  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  small  business  by  the  corporation.  Two 
neighboring  farmers,  however,  who  are  competing  for 
honors  in  regard  to  corn  yield  per  acre  will  both  gain, 
as  well  as  society.  Two  granges  in  productive  com- 
petition may  both  reap  advantages  with  no  losses. 
Through  conflict  two  universities  may  so  inter-stimu- 
late one  another  that  students  and  faculties  of  both 
institutions  and  the  public  all  profit. 

Conflict  between  groups  is  an  element  of  progress, 
unless  the  conflict  becomes  too  unequal,  unless  it  as- 
sumes the  form  of  competitive  consumption  of  goods, 
both  economic  and  non-economic,  or  unless  it  fails  to 
rise  to  high,  open,  and  socialized  levels.  The 
strength  of  any  one  of  these  provisos  is  great ;  and  of 
all  of  them  together,  tremendous.  Society  must 
guard  itself  against  destruction  by  keeping  intra-con- 
flicts  within  productive  bounds.  Today  the  United 
States  is  in  grave  danger  because  capital  and  labor 
have  clinched  and  are  fighting,  regardless  of  the  pub- 
lic. If  individual  spectators  are  killed  or  adjacent 
property  is  destroyed,  the  fight  goes  on  just  the  same. 
The  nation  must  take  a  hand  in  the  struggle  and  say : 
"This  brutal  fight  shall  be  stopped,  or  we  will  all  go 


Group  Conflicts  223 

to  the  dust  together.  Your  conflict  must  proceed  only 
along  the  lines  of  productive  competition." 

Conflict  between  marked  unequals  results  in  the 
annihilation  of  the  lesser  unequal,  and  in  no  appre- 
ciable gain  to  the  other.  A  strong  football  team  that 
rushes  through  a  weak  line  for  fifteen  touchdowns 
learns  little  football;  the  weak  team  learns  no  foot- 
ball. Neither  gain  and  the  public  is  cheated.  The 
college  professor  who  talks  "over  the  heads"  of  his 
pupils  receives  no  stimulations  from  his  class,  and 
neither  do  they  from  him.     Both  lose. 

Competition  in  the  consumption  of  socially  valuable 
goods  instead  of  competition  in  the  production  of 
human  values,  is  socially  disintegrating.  Competition 
in  the  consumption  of  pleasure  automobiles  is  waste- 
ful and  unpatriotic.  Conflicts  which  involve  decep- 
tion, physical  combat  instead  of  open  discussion,  and  a 
repudiation  of  social  values  lead  to  barbarism  and 
savagery. 

No  conflict  means  no  interstimulations  and  hence 
no  group  progress.  Too  much  conflict  creates  so 
much  excitement  that  progress  is  halted.  Conflicts 
must  serve  socially  constructive  ends  exclusively. 
Needless  social  friction  and  social  destruction  must  be 
prevented.  It  is  at  this  point  that  T.  N.  Carver's 
theory  of  social  progress  should  be  stated.^  Professor 
Carver  recognizes  an  evolution  in  the  forms  of  con- 
flict, but  seems  to  assume  that  the  group,  and  particu- 
larly the  national  group,  is  an  end  in  itself.  He 
starts   with   the   elemental   type   of   conflict,   namely, 

^Essays  in  Social  Justice,  Ch.  IV  and  Principles  of  PolUical 
Economy,  Ch.  IV. 


224  Social  Ps3'chology 

destructive,  and  familiar  to  us  as  war,  sabotage,  rob- 
bery, and  duelling.  A  higher  form  of  competition 
is  deception,  which  like  the  first  type  is  characteristic 
of  some  animals,  and  which  is  common  among  human 
beings  in  forms  of  swindling,  counterfeiting,  adulterat- 
ing, and  mendacious  advertising.  A  third,  higher, 
and  almost  entirely  human  form  of  conflict  is  per- 
suasion such  as  political  (campaigning  for  office), 
erotic  (courting),  commercial  (advertising  and  sales- 
manship), and  legal  (litigation).  Then  there  is  pro- 
ductive conflict,  such  as  rivalry  in  producing  goods 
and  rivalry  in  rendering  service.  Competitive  con- 
sumption is  sharply  distinguished  from  competitive 
production  of  economic  goods. 

Beyond  these  points,  the  analysis  does  not  go.  It 
needs  to  be  developed  further  in  its  psychological 
phases.  It  emphasizes  the  biological  bases  of  conflict ; 
it  stresses  perhaps  too  much  the  survival  of  the  fittest 
in  the  sense  of  the  survival  of  the  strongest;  it  deals 
little  with  conflicts  between  motives,  moral  standards, 
and  societary  values.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  a 
group  whose  highest  activity  is  competitive  produc- 
tion of  economic  goods  can  avoid  the  world-wide  con- 
demnation which  fell  upon  Germany.  There  must  be 
competitive  production  of  harmonizing  and  co-operat- 
ing activities.  There  must  be  a  competitive  produc- 
tion of  moral  and  spiritual  values.  If  not,  then  the 
production  of  economic  values  will  exceed  the  pro- 
duction of  ethical  and  socialized  values  and  the  nation 
will  fall  into  materialism,  decline,  and  decay. 

As  the  economic  struggle  bulks  large  in  Professor 
Carver's     wr/tings,     so     psychological     conflicts     are 


Oroni)  Conflicts  225 

stressed  by  Gabriel  Tarde.  To  Tarde  there  are  three 
leading  forms  of  conflict,  or  opposition,  namely;  poli- 
tical, economic,  and  social ;  or  war,  competition,  and 
discussion.  These  terms  in  order  are  used  to  indi- 
cate a  decreasing  degree  of  destructive  action  and  an 
ascending  scale  of  constructive  opposition.  The  first 
two  classes,  war  and  competition,  are  usually  destruc- 
tive— Tarde  underrates  the  social  value  of  competitive 
production  of  economic  goods.  The  third  class,  dis- 
cussion, is  generally  constructive — Tarde  fails  to  in- 
dicate clearly  the  deception  which  sometimes  under- 
lies discussion  and  the  wasteful  character  of  much 
discussion. 

Discussion  is  a  mental  duel.  Further,  it  often 
causes  mental  torture,  e.  g.,  when  a  prosecuting  attor- 
ney persecutes  the  defendant,  or  when  a  newspaper 
"exposes"  the  private  affairs  of  innocent  victims  of 
evil. 

Two  ideas,  or  institutions,  or  systems  of  technique 
may  engage  in  a  duel.  Tarde  has  discussed  at  length 
the  psycho-societary  duel,"  illustrations  of  which  are 
the  duels  between  Christianity  and  atheism,  between 
Protestant  Christianity  and  Catholic  Christianity,  be- 
tween aristocracy  and  democracy,  between  steamships 
and  sailing  vessels,  between  high  tariff  and  low  tariff, 
or  between  though  and  tho,  and  between  the  Victrola 
and  Edison  talking  machines. 

The  psycho-societary  duel  ends  in  one  of  two  ways.^ 
( I )  One  idea  meets  another  and  annihilates  it.  In 
the  minds  of  thinking  people,  the  idea  of  a  round 

"Laws  of  Imitation,  pp.  167  ff. 

^Tarde  gives  a  three-fold  classification. 


226  Social  Psychology 

earth  has  completely  superseded  the  idea  of  a  flat 
earth.  The  annihilation  may  take  place  slowly,  or 
suddenly  by  resort  to  arbitrary  means,  such  as  war  or 
governmental  fiat.  The  tractor  is  slowly  triumphing 
over  the  farm  horse.  For  those  who  understand,  the 
discovery  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  ended  suddenly 
previous  conceptions  of  the  cause  of  tuberculosis. 
The  contest  between  voluntary  and  compulsory  mili- 
tary service  was  settled  suddenly  in  the  United  States 
in  19 1 7  by  Congressional  action. 

(2)  The  psycho-societary  duel  may  end  in  com- 
promise. Strong  elements  of  each  protagonist  will 
be  combined  in  a  set  of  phenomena.  The  languages 
of  the  Saxons  and  the  Angles  met  the  languages  of 
the  Celts,  Latins,  and  Greeks  and  the  result  was  a  new, 
composite  vehicle  of  speech.  Words  themselves  are 
often  combinations  of  inherently  antagonistic  roots. 
Coal  miners  compete  for  earnings  with  coal  barons — 
and  the  result  is  generally  a  compromise.  As  the 
orbit  of  the  earth  represents  an  equilibrium  between 
centripetal  and  centrifugal  forces,  so  our  democracy 
is  a  compromise  between  anarchism  and  absolutism. 
A  business  college  is  a  compromise  between  actual 
business  experience  and  a  regular  college  education. 
The  covenant  for  a  League  of  Nations  is  a  series  of 
compromises  between  antagonistic  interests. 

In  both  types  of  duels  the  conflicts  are  between  in- 
ventions— usually  a  new  invention  (or  discovery) 
which  is  attempting  to  drive  out  a  somewhat  outworn 
but  well-established  invention.  When  a  new  social 
invention  meets  an  established  invention,  the  result  is 
either  annihilation  of  one  hv  the  other,  or  in  the  case 


Group  Conflicts  227 

of  somewhat  equal  conflict,  the  formation  of  a  new, 
compromise  invention. 

F.  H.  Giddings  has  pointed  out  how  conflicts  be- 
tween groups  that  are  nearly  balanced  in  strength 
(secondary  conflicts)  lead  to  progress,  because  out  of 
conflict  between  more  or  less  equal  social  forces  arises 
tolerance  and  compromise,  then  co-operation,  alliance, 
and  mutual  aid.*  Since  the  contestants  are  balanced 
in  power,  neither  can  win;  they  must  tolerate  one 
another.  From  this  toleration  there  comes  at  first  a 
minimum  mental  interchange,  then  the  establishment 
of  interrelationships,  and  ultimately  of  co-operation. 
Nations  today  are  in  the  main  current  of  this  process. 
The  amount,  however,  of  national  co-operation  is  still 
small  and  suspicion  based  on  national  selfishness  is 
rampant. 

Conflict  is  the  best  way  to  settle  the  dualism  between 
opposing  social  forces,  according  to  Georg  Simmel.^ 
The  main  purpose  of  conflict  is  to  create  organization. 
A  hundred  athletes  compete  for  places  on  a  team  and 
then  the  winners  co-operate  in  forming  the  team- 
organization.  But  this  theory  is  unduly  harsh.  Con- 
flicts do  not  all  take  place  upon  the  blind  levels  of 
force.  Antagonistic  elements  may  become  socialized 
and  blend  into  a  new  whole.  The  dualism  of  social 
groups  may  exhibit  decreasing  conflict  and  increasing 
co-operation.  A  laboring  group  and  a  capitalist 
group  may  become  socialized  and  each  recognize  tne 
vital  part  that  the  other  plays  in  the  success  of  an 
industrial   establishment.     Each  may  become  willing 

^Principles  of  Sociology,  pp.  loo  ff. 

""Sociology  of  Conflict,"  Amcr.  Jour,  of  SocioL,  IX:  490. 


228  Social  Psychology 

to  arbitrate  differences  and  to  co-operate  in  industrial 
production.  Professor  Simmel  speaks  of  the  whole 
history  of  society  in  terms  of  the  striking  conflicts 
between  socialistic  adaptation  to  society  and  individ- 
ualistic departure  from  its  demands.  This  is  the 
duality  which  is  expressed  biologically  in  the  conflicts 
between  heredity  and  variation,  and  which  is  found 
sociologically  in  the  interactions  between  heredity  and 
environment.  The  results  are  new  forms  of  life 
(biological  organisms),  new  types  of  mental  life  (in- 
ventions), and  new  social  structures  (institutions). 

Conflict  has  been  treated  as  a  correlative  term  with 
co-operation  by  Gustave  Ratzenhofer^  and  Albion  \V. 
Small. ^  Everywhere  in  the  processes  of  social  ad- 
justment the  element  of  conflict  appears,  and  the  line 
of  progress  moves  from  a  maximum  of  conflict  to  a 
maximum  of  reciprocity.®  Under  a  maximum  of  co- 
operation conflict  will  not  be  eliminated,  but  will 
function  in  modified,  dignified,  and  controlled  ways. 
Maximum  is  not  absolute  reciprocity.  Maximum  reci- 
procity between  a  model  husband  and  a  model  wife 
would  provide  for  certain  conflicts  which  would  stimu- 
late the  growth  of  both  personalities  in  a  way  that 
would  not  occur  if  both  were  exactly  alike. 

Another  element  in  this  fundamental  societary  phe- 
nomenon of  conflict,  according  to  Durkheim,  is  that 
opposing  groups  which  are  fighting  for  differentiated 
interests  find  it  necessary  to  combine  in  order  that 
both  may  advance.^     On  the  desert  a  mesquite  springs 

'^Die  sociologischc  Erkcnntniss. 

''General  Sociology. 

^Ihid.,  p.  325. 

^Dc  la  division  dn  traj'ail  social. 


Group  Conflicts  229 

up.  Seeds  of  cacti  also  grow;  "and  the  cactus  and 
the  mesquite  combine  their  armature  of  thorns  for 
mutual  protection.  Then  wind-blown  grass  seeds 
lodge  about  the  roots,  and  grasses  grow  and  seed 
beneath  the  sheltering  branches,  and  next  small  mam- 
mals seek  the  same  protection.  .  .  .  Thus  does  a  large 
part  of  the  plants  and  animals  in  the  desert  dwell  to- 
gether in  harmony  and  mutual  helpfulness."^" 
^  In  summary  it  may  be  said  that  conflict  is  an  indis- 
pensable element  in  progress,  that  its  lowest  levels  are 
brutal  and  viciously  destructive  but  that  its  highest 
reaches  are  stimulating,  spiritual,  and  wholly  con- 
structive. The  socialization  of  conflicting  interests 
produces  unification  which  is  strength.  Small  com- 
peting businesses  unite.  The  antagonistic  American 
colonies  united.  The  mutually  jealous  Allies  united. 
Progress  is  born  of  a  moving  equilibrium  of  stimu- 
lating, constructive,  and  socialized  conflicts. 

2.  The  Social  Psychology  of  War.  Since  war  is 
the  most  destructive  type  of  conflict  known  to  man- 
kind and  since  it  persists  in  raising  its  ugly  form  above 
the  highest  phases  of  modern  civilization,  it  will  here 
receive  special  attention.  How  strange  it  is  that  civ- 
ilization has  not  yet  found  a  better  means  of  settling 
national  disputes ! 

As  shown  in  an  earlier  chapter,  war  has  its  origins 
in  the  pugnacious  instinct  of  man.  These  tendencies 
doubtless  served  useful  purposes  in  primitive  society. 
Once  man  had  to  depend  on  his  fists  and  his  bow  and 
arrow  to  defend  himself.     Men  who  could  not  fight 

"W.  J.  McGee  in  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  liy  W,  I. 
Thomas,  pp.  55,  56. 


230  Social  Psychology 

well  succumbed.  With  the  development  of  private 
property,  organized  defense  became  necessary.  Tribes 
that  were  unskilled  in  fighting  lost  their  lands,  were 
captured  and  enslaved,  or  were  wiped  out  by  the 
powerful  tribes  whose  fighting  strength  made  them 
a  law  unto  themselves  and  hence  unmoral  or  immoral 
in  their  attitudes  toward  weaker  tribes.  The  modern 
philosophic  flood  tide  of  this  doctrine  was  reached  in 
the  teachings  of  such  men  as  Nietzsche  and  Bernhardi. 

The  only  groups  whom  primitive  fighting  tribes  re- 
spected were  those  whose  warring  abilities  were  es- 
tablished. Fighting  propensity  ruled  the  world  for 
millenniums.  As  a  result  the  fighting  instinct  acquired 
greatly  exaggerated  power  in  the  constitution  of  the 
individual  and  the  group.  The  wolf  and  tiger  quali- 
ties of  men  and  groups  were  abnormally  fostered  and 
supported. 

In  parallel  stages  the  counter  movement  to  war 
developed.  Among  animals  and  primitive  people 
small  groups  of  individuals  lived  harmoniously  to- 
gether. The  social  spirit  gained  momentum.  Within 
groups  individuals  learned  to  respect  differences  of 
opinion  and  to  build  a  code  for  settling  disputes. 
Observance  of  this  code  prevented  civil  wars.  The 
pistol  duel  was  a  sophisticated  survival  of  personal 
fighting  in  those  groups  which  had  established  a  legal 
procedure. 

Courts  of  law  have  developed  in  our  country  until 
they  rule  the  desires  of  practically  every  individual 
when  moved  to  settle  a  dispute  by  violent  means.  It 
is  only  the  sportive  or  criminal  American  who  carries 
a  revolver,  or  the  immigrant   from  traditional  lands 


Group  Conflicts  231 

who  carries  a  concealed  dagger.  Individuals  have 
learned  the  art  of  living  together  peacefully  and  har- 
moniously.    They  have  learned  to  be  moral  and  social. 

But  groups,  especially  large  groups,  find  it  difficult 
to  be  moral.  Reputable  citizens  assert  that  corpora- 
tions have  no  conscience,  and  that  nations  are  moral 
derelicts.  Every  citizen  of  our  land  should  be  proud, 
therefore,  to  support  in  thought  and  action  the  procla- 
mation of  President  Wilson  when  in  191 7  he  asserted 
that  the  United  States  has  no  selfish  national  ends  to 
serve. 

It  is  a  sad  but  true  fact  that  nations  on  the  slightest 
provocation  glare  at  one  another  like  wolves.  They 
do  not  yet  possess  dependable  inter-national  habits  of 
a  moral  character,  which  would  in  themselves  guaran- 
tee the  stability  and  efficacy  of  a  League  of  Nations. 
They  still  view  one  another  with  jealousy  and  sus- 
picion— and  perhaps  justly  so.  Nations,  however,  as 
fast  as  they  become  nationally  unselfish  (as  tested  by 
deeds)  and  as  soon  as  they  learn  to  live  harmoniously 
and  justly  and  constructively  together  should  con- 
federate for  unselfish  international  ends.  Even  they 
must  be  ready  for  war  until  all  other  powerful  nations 
have  demonstrated  clearly  their  conversion  to  demo- 
cratic world  purposes.  When  nations  deal  with  one 
another  according  to  the  principles  of  openness,  mutual 
respect,  and  fair  play,  swords  may  be  beaten  into 
plowshares  and  spears  into  pruning-hooks.  Even 
then  there  will  be  considerable  need  for  pruning- 
hooks. 

One  of  the  greatest  ideas  that  President  Wilson 
ever  expressed  was  to  the  effect  that  the  business  of 


232  Social  Psychology 

national  representatives  is  to  organize  the  friendship 
of  the  world."  International  friendship  is  not  so 
plentiful  that  we  can  afford  to  allow  it  to  remain 
unutilized  and  unorganized.  Without  it,  the  League 
of  Nations  is  doomed  to  failure;  on  the  other  hand, 
one  of  the  main  businesses  of  the  League  and  of  every 
nation  within  the  League  will  be  to  promote  it. 

War  breeds  some  good  as  well  as  much  evil.  Mili- 
tary training  guarantees  the  advantages  of  out-of-door 
life  and  the  building  of  strong  chest  and  leg  muscles. 
It  succeessfully  counteracts  the  slouchy  habit  of  walk- 
ing and  standing  which  is  almost  a  national  disgrace 
in  our  land. 

The  soldier  "gains  in  courage."  He  is  mass  in- 
spired. Indirectly  and  through  the  private  and  public 
applause  of  and  rewards  to  bravery,  he  becomes  in- 
creasingly brave.  After  a  few  months  of  military 
drill,  the  diffident  youth — if  he  does  not  succumb — 
is  transformed  into  a  potential  hero. 

The  soldier  develops  "an  enlarged  morality."  In- 
stead of  working  for  self,  he  finds  himself  joined  with 
others  in  the  support  of  national  interests  and  public 
welfare.  From  self-service  he  is  turned  to  others- 
service.  His  eyes  are  shifted  from  his  own  welfare 
to  national  welfare  for  whicli  previously  he  may  have 
cared  little.^" 

The  group  which  fights  increases  its  unity.  Dissi- 
dent elements  are  brought  closer  together  and  at  least 
temporarily  imited.  Attack  from  the  outside  drives 
people  together.     This  fear  of  a  common  danger  is  a 

"From  address  before  llie  CIiam])er  of  Deputies  in  Rome,  Jan- 
uary 3,   igig. 

'"Tardo,  Ijm's  of  I iiiilalion.  \^\^.  35S,  359. 


Group  Conflicts  233 

better  unifying  factor  than  the  hope  or  experience  of 
common  happiness  which  arises  from  economic  pros- 
perity." 

War  favors  viriUty.  The  strong  are  honored. 
Luxury  is  made  odious.  Before  the  World  War  the 
United  States  was  showing  signs  of  fatty  degenera- 
tion. Thrift  was  being  forgotten  and  smug  economic 
complacency  was  enthroned.  The  war  revealed  to  our 
nation  the  true  situation  with  startling  clearness.  To 
a  degree,  war-suffering  reveals  weak  places  nationally, 
and  evokes  national  interest  in  behalf  of  all  the  citi- 
zens. This  national  activity,  however,  tends  to  as- 
sume a  harsh,  compulsory,  undemocratic  character. 
Further,  at  the  close  of  a  successful  war,  a  nation 
tends  to  swing  back  to  careless,  riotous  living. 

War  necessitates  organization.  Witness  the  Vv^ay  in 
which  our  country  organized  for  war — through  the 
draft  law,  the  government  operation  of  railroads,  the 
Liberty  loan  "drives."  From  such  procedure  a  na- 
tion should  learn  valuable  lessons  in  organizing  in 
peace  times  for  constructive  and  socialized  ends. 

The  weaknesses  of  military  control  are  many. 
While  the  officer  assumes  responsibility,  the  private 
is  relieved  of  directive  work  and  becomes  machine- 
like. It  is  his  business  to  obey,  and  not  to  question 
or  "to  reason  why."  Military  life  tends  first  to  make 
the  officer  and  then  the  private  autocratic.  One  day  a 
big,  handsome  officer  in  a  German  regiment,  wearing 
decorations  of  bravery,  and  receiving  the  personal 
commendations  of  the  Kaiser,  was  approached  by  a 
little  girl  five  or  six  years  old  with  a  letter  in  her 

"J.  S.  Mackenzie,  Outlines  of  Social  Philosophy,  p.  247. 


234  Social  Psychology 

hand  which  she  wished  to  post  in  a  box  behind  the 
tall  officer.  She  stood  on  her  tiptoes  but  could  not 
reach  the  box — it  was  too  high.  She  looked  longingly 
for  aid,  and  finally,  summoning  all  her  courage,  she 
handed  the  letter  to  the  officer.  "He  took  it  mechani- 
cally, with  one  or  two  glances  back  and  forth  between 
it  and  her.  His  intellect  was  evidently  less  bright 
than  his  uniform.  Presently  the  idea  took  shape  in 
his  brain  that  this  slip  of  a  girl  had  called  on  him  for 
help.  With  an  arrogant  toss  of  his  head  and  a  con- 
temptuous snap  of  his  wrist,  he  threw  the  letter  to 
the  ground."" 

The  cost  of  war  in  dollars  and  cents — one  of  the 
least  of  its  costs — is  tremendous.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  the  financial  cost  of  the  World  War  was 
250  billion  dollars.  If  this  sum  were  in  one  dollar 
bank-notes  and  were  laid  end  to  end,  it  would  ex- 
tend 29,198,000  miles,  or  11 60  times  around  the  earth 
or  145  times  to  the  moon.  If  laid  side  by  side  and 
end  to  end,  these  bank-notes  would  cover  920,000 
acres.     The  paper  in  them  would  weigh  250,000  tons. 

Incomprehensible  as  is  the  financial  cost  of  the 
World  War,  the  greatest  effort  of  the  imagination  can- 
not describe  the  cost  in  human  suffering.  If  it  were 
possible  to  review  the  dead  instead  of  the  living  soldiers 
and  if  they  came  past  the  reviewing  stand  in  double  file 
we  should  get  an  impression  of  the  human  cost  of  war. 
Suppose  that  tlic  British  dead  were  called  first — the 
double  lines  would  pass  the  reviewing  stand  day  and 
night  for  100  days.  Then  the  French  dead  would  file 
past  for  TQo  days  longer;  the  German  dead,  for  220 

"Rf'Oortod    l)v    Albion    W.    Smnll,    Avicr.    Joitr.    of   Sncinlngy, 
XXIII:  167.  ^(^R. 


Group  Conflicts  235 

days;  and  the  Russian  dead,  for  230  days  more — a 
total  of  740  days  and  nights,  or  over  two  years.  Then 
suppose  that  the  wounded  could  be  reviewed  and  that 
they  could  come  in  double  file  at  the  same  pace — this 
procession  would  last  day  and  night  for  five  years. 
Suppose  finally  that  loved  ones  who  suffered  at  home 
because  of  the  war  casualties  could  march  rapidly  in 
double  file  past  our  reviewing  stand.  This  procession, 
it  is  estimated,  would  last  day  and  night  for  fifteen 
years.  This  entire  panorama  of  suffering,  twenty- 
two  years  long,  ought  to  convince  even  the  hardest- 
hearted  of  the  cost  of  war  and  convert  him  into  an 
ardent  advocate  of  a  League  of  Nations  for  the  set- 
tlement of  national  difficulties  by  constructive 
measures. 

War  is  brutalizing.  Returned  soldiers  who  went 
"over  the  top"  refrain  from  describing  the  scenes  that 
they  witnessed  or  in  which  they  participated.  "War 
confronts  human  beings  with  situations  in  which  they 
must  act  inhumanly. "^■^'  If  you  are  going  to  kill  sys- 
tematically, it  is  necessary  to  hate  systematically. 
After  a  war  has  continued  for  some  time,  hatred  in- 
creases and  ideals  decline,  and  any  measures  which 
will  help  to  bring  victory  or  to  postpone  defeat  are 
likely  to  be  justified.  War  lying  and  calumniation 
rapidly  increase.  War  is  "a  brutal  acknowledgement 
that  nations  have  failed  to  live  together  harmoni- 
ously." 

War  keeps  alive  the  inferior.  It  immediately  re- 
jects those  who  cannot  pass  a  satisfactory  physical 
and  mental  examination — they  are  left  at  home.     In 

''G.  F.  Nicolai,  The  Biology  of  the  War,  p.  113. 


236  Social  Psychology 

battle  the  bravest  take  the  greatest  chances  and  suffer 
the  largest  casualties.  During  a  long  war  the  best 
physical  specimens  of  manhood,  including  the  bravest, 
are  killed,  and  the  nation's  work  must  be  carried  for- 
ward by  and  its  racial  stock  replenished  from  its  lower 
physical  and  mental  grades.  After  a  very  long  war 
the  future  generations  will  be  the  descendants  of 
"stay-at-homes,  the  idiotic  and  sickly." 

But  war  cannot  be  ended  merely  by  pointing  out  its 
evils,  by  denouncing  it,  or  by  declaring  that  "this  is  a 
war  to  end  war."  Widespread  attention  must  be 
given  to  measures  for  building  up  the  friendship  of 
the  world  and  of  helping  the  international  machinery 
to  run  harmoniously,  justly,  and  constructively. 

Further,  the  combative  instinct  must  be  eleVated  to 
spiritualized  and  socialized  forms  of  expression.  We 
can  scarcely  afford,  as  shown  in  Chapter  III,  to 
eliminate  it  absolutely.  But  we  can  change  its 
methods  and  direct  it  to  societary  ends. 

]\Ioral  and  social  equivalents  of  war  must  be  pro- 
vided. Courage  must  be  fostered  by  making  life  less 
easy  for  those  who  now  are  idling  away  their  time  in 
frivolous  pleasure,  and  by  making  the  game  of  life 
more  worth  while  for  those  who  are  struggling  for- 
ward against  overwhelming  economic  odds.  Physical 
education  must  be  expanded  to  give  to  all  the  valuable 
training  which  military  life  gives  to  selected  physical 
groups.  Education  in  citizenship  for  everyone  will 
create  a  new  sense  of  public  responsibility.  The  com- 
mon presentation  of  international  and  world  needs  and 
ideals  will  evoke  a  new  world  spirit. 


Group  Conflicts  237 

3.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Race  Prejudice.  If 
war  is  the  most  spectacular  form  of  conflict,  then  race 
prejudice  is  the  most  subtle  and  insidious.  It  is  an 
impassable  barrier  to  race  assimilation.  Nearly  all 
race  problems  in  the  United  States  today  could  be 
solved  if  it  were  not  for  race  prejudices — both  ways. 

Race  prejudice  is  an  antagonistic  attitude  of  a  per- 
son of  one  race  toward  the  members  of  another  race. 
It  is  usually  a  non-scientific  pre-judgment.  The  pre- 
judgment may  have  been  caused  by  hearsay,  by  experi- 
ence with  a  few  non-typical  members  of  the  other 
race,  or  by  sneering  remarks,  rather  than  by  scientifi- 
cally obtained  evidence. 

The  social  psychology  of  race  prejudice  reveals  sev- 
eral causal  elements.  ( i )  An  elemental  fear  of  the 
strange  underlies  race  prejudice.  This  is  the  only  or 
at  most  the  chief  inherited  factor  in  the  phenomenon ; 
the  other  causes  come  from  the  social  environment. 
The  individual  who  would  survive  must  regard  the 
stranger  with  caution.  In  primitive  days,  the  stranger 
was  necessarily  assumed  to  be  an  enemy  until  he 
proved  himself  otherwise.  The  stranger  today  with- 
out credentials  at  the  cashier's  window  is  helpless. 
The  stranger  at  the  front  door  of  a  private  residence 
is  viewed  askance.  An  American  at  a  European 
court  does  not  gain  entry  without  acceptable  introduc- 
tions. The  need  for  self-preservation  and  the  wanton 
practices  of  many  strangers  have  produced  the  elemen- 
tal fear  of  the  stranger. 

(2)  The  strange  tribe  is  an  enemy  tribe — until 
proved  otherwise.  Race  preservation  demands  that 
each  race  must  maintain  its  own  values  and  its  own 


238  Social  Psychology 

entity.  Consequently,  each  race  has  built  up  a  set  of 
beliefs  which  stress  the  virtues  and  overlook  the  vices 
of  that  race,  and  which  elaborate  the  weaknesses  of 
other  races.  A  race  attaches  "the  idea  of  beauty  to 
everything  which  characterizes  their  physical  confor- 
mation." The  members  of  each  race  come  to  believe 
that  their  race  is  the  best  race  in  the  world. 

The  Englishman,  the  Italian,  the  German,  the  Afri- 
can Negro,  the  Eskimo  each  declares  that  his  race  is 
the  superior  race  of  mankind.  For  example,  the  Afri- 
can Negro  believes  that  brown  and  black  are  the  most 
beautiful  colors,  and  pities  the  Caucasian  because  of 
his  pale,  sickly  hue.  After  living  for  a  few  months 
among  the  black  races  of  Africa,  white  Caucasian  trav- 
elers have  admitted  a  sense  of  shame  because  of  the 
pale  skins  of  their  race — so  powerful  has  been  the  op- 
posite influence  among  the  blacks.  The  Negress  en- 
hances her  beauty  by  painting  the  face  with  charcoal 
while  the  Caucasian  lady  puts  on  a  chalky  white  to  in- 
crease her  whiteness.  The  Negro  considers  his  gods 
as  black  and  his  devils  as  white;  the  Caucasian  re- 
verses the  order.  If  there  are  thirty-five  leading  races 
in  the  world  today  and  the  leaders  of  each  are  declar- 
ing that  each  is  the  best,  then  there  is  prevalent  a 
thirty-five-fold  contradictory  statement  that  there  are 
thirty-five  "best"  races. 

(3)  Ignorance  causes  race  prejudice.  Ignorance 
cannot  be  separated  from  a  false  emphasis  upon  race 
pride.  We  must  really  know  other  races  before  we 
are  entitled  to  a  positive  opinion.  Leading  ethnolo- 
gists have  concluded  that  all  races  are  potentially  simi- 
lar,   that   race  differences  arc   due   to   differences   in 


Group  Conflicts  239 

physical  and  social  environment.  For  example,  a  part 
of  the  Mongolian  peoples  moved  to  Japan,  where  they 
have  undergone  many  changes.  Others  of  the  Mon- 
golian peoples  moved  w-estward  and  finally  through 
their  descendants  became  established  in  Europe  in 
Hungary,  namely,  the  Magyars,  where  they  were  sur- 
rounded by  a  sea  of  Slavs.  In  the  United  States,  the 
Japanese  and  the  Magyars  meet  today  as  immigrants, 
but  neither  of  these  groups  of  Mongolian  brethren 
recognizes  the  other.  In  coming  from  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  earth  and  in  circumnavigating  the  globe, 
these  two  races  of  originally  the  same  stock  have  un- 
dergone widely  different  experiences  and  encountered 
different  environments.  Consequently,  they  vary  in 
type. 

False  traditions  and  false  education  cause  race  prej- 
udice. These  errors  can  be  corrected  by  a  scientific 
study  of  the  worthy  and  unworthy  qualities  of  races 
in  the  light  of  the  experiences  of  those  races.  Upon 
examination,  each  race  is  found  to  be  superior  in  some 
particular  to  other  races.  At  their  best  and  at  their 
worst  the  members  of  all  civilized  races  in  our  coun- 
try are  found  to  be  pretty  much  alike. 

(4)  Separation  increases  race  prejudice.  Separa- 
tion breeds  misunderstanding,  false  estimates,  and 
hence,  prejudice.  In  the  overcongested  districts  of 
any  of  our  large  cities,  the  immigrant  frequently  learns 
of  the  United  States  at  its  worst,  and  likewise,  the 
American  sees  the  foreign-born  at  his  worst.  In  the 
coal  mines,  the  illiterate  immigrant  first  of  all  learns 
or  is  compelled  to  learn  American  profanity — these 
vivid  impressions  remain  with  him  and,  unhappily. 


240  Social  Psychology 

constitute  a  part  of  his  Americanization. 

In  the  Far  East,  Europeans  do  not  associate  with 
natives.  In  Yokohama,  according  to  Melville  E. 
Stone,  on  ground  which  was  donated  to  the  foreign 
representatives  for  their  consulates,  the  sign  was 
placed :  "No  Japanese  are  permitted  on  these 
grounds.  "^^ 

While  race  preservation  demands  a  certain  degree  of 
race  separation,  yet  race  exclusiveness  naturally  gener- 
ates prejudice,  out  of  which  rumors  of  war,  and  wars 
themselves  often  come.  If  there  are  no  provisions  for 
an  increasing  interchange  of  ideas  and  for  opportuni- 
ties for  constructive  contacts,  friendship  between  na- 
tions cannot  materialize. 

(5)  Differences  in  race  appearance  foster  preju- 
dices,.. These  variations  are  often  superficial.  We 
cannot  judge  the  worth  of  a  race  by  the  slant  of  the 
eye,  the  color  of  the  skin,  or  the  shape  of  the  shin- 
bone.  ^^  We  are  still  ignorant  regarding  real  race  dis- 
tinctions, and  hence  need  to  guard  against  assuming 
that  differences  in  appearances  connote  basic  dispari- 
ties. 

(6)  Competition  engenders  prejudice.  The  Chi- 
nese came  to  the  United  States  upon  invitation  and  at 
first  were  welcomed.  When  their  labor  competed  with 
that  of  Americans,  hatred  of  them  arose.  Many  peo- 
ple take  a  generous  attitude  toward  the  Negro,  but  if 
the  Negro  successfully  competes  for  economic  posi- 
tions, then  the  white  persons  who  have  lost,  imme- 
diately experience  race  hatred.     Both  economic  and 

^"National  Geographic  Magazine,  21 :  973-85. 
''George  Elliott  Howard,  Social  Psychology,  p.  57,  and  in  the 
Pulilicalions  of  the  Amer.  Sociol.  Society,  XII:  7. 


Group  Conflicts  241 

social  competition  set  off  dynamic  charge?  of  preju- 
dice. 

The  result  of  race  prejudice  is  isolation.  Race  prej- 
udice isolates  the  race  which  feels  it  and  the  one 
against  which  it  is  directed.  It  plays  havoc  with  what- 
ever potential  spirit  of  co-operation  may  exist  in  either. 
It  barricades  race  against  race. 

Race  prejudice  easily  becomes  one  of  "the  most 
hateful  and  harmful"  human  sentiments.  It  is  arbi- 
trary, vicious,  and  narrowing;  it  culminates  in  lynch- 
ings,  pogroms,  and  war.  One  of  America's  ablest 
scholars  has  indicted  it  in  the  following  incisive  lan- 
guage :"' 

It  has  incited  and  excused  cannibalism,  warfare  and 
slavery. 

It  has  justified  religious  persecution  and  economic 
exploitation. 

It  has  fostered  tyranny,  cruelty  and  the  merciless 
waste  of  human  life. 

It  has  bred  the  spirit  of  caste ;  and  it  has  done  most 
to  create  the  sweat-shop  and  the  slum. 

It  is  the  archenemy  of  social  peace  throughout  the 
world. 

It  is  a  sinister  factor  in  world  politics. 

Only  through  its  removal  shall  we  ever  realize  the 
vision  of  the  dreamer — the  brotherhood  of  man. 

In  a  brief  summary  of  group  conflicts  it  may  be  said 
that  they  function  as  means  to  a  social  end ;  operate  in 
the  long  run  upon  an  ascending  scale,  namely,  war, 

'*'George  Elliott  Howard,  Social  Psychology,  p.  57;  and  in  Vol. 
XII,  Publications  of  the  Amer.  Sociol.  Society,  pp.  6,  7. 


242  Social  Psychology 

competition,  discussion ;  and  give  way  to  the  rise  of 
co-operation,  alliance,  and  mutual  aid.  They  arise 
out  of  the  fighting  tendencies  and  run  the  gamut  from 
brutal  ruthlessness  to  that  high  type  of  corrective 
effort  which  is  promulgated  by  love.  Conflicts  culmi- 
nate in  spiritualized  contests  for  rendering  service. 
In  their  lowest  forms  they  are  struggles  to  see  who 
can  deceive  most,  who  can  exploit  most,  who  can  shirk 
most;  at  their  best,  they  are  contests  to  see  who  can 
serve  his  fellow  man  most. 


PROBLEMS 

(THE  NATURE  AND  FUNCTION  OF  GROUP 
CONFLICTS) 

1.  Illustrate  a  conflict  between  an  individual  and 
his  group. 

2.  Illustrate  a  conflict  between  two  groups  of  sim- 
ilar strength. 

3.  Illustrate  a  conflict  between  a  small  group  and 
a  large  group  of  which  the  small  group  is  a  part. 

4.  Illustrate  a  conflict  between  two  ideas. 

5.  Illustrate  competitive  consumption  of  economic 
goods. 

6.  Illustrate  competitive  production. 

7.  Why  is  discussion  able  to  "hurry  conflicts  to  a 
conclusion"  ? 

8.  When  is  discussion  profitless? 

9.  What  are  the  leading  foes  of  new  ideas? 

10.     Would  you  expect  to  find  the  truth  of  the  mat- 
ter in  a  given  discussion  with  either  extremist? 


Group  Conflicts  243 

11.  Should  a  false  dogma  be  attacked  directly,  ur 
undermined  "by  marshalling  and  interpreting  the  ad- 
verse facts"? 

12.  Should  a  conflict  between  types  of  water  filtra- 
tion or  armor  plate  be  referred  to  the  voters? 

13.  What  types  of  public  questions  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  voters  for  a  decision? 

14.  Why  have  theological  controversies  been  more 
bitter  than  scientific  disputes? 

15.  What  are  the  strong  and  weak  points  of  com- 
promising? 

16.  Illustrate  competition  in  rendering  service  to 
others. 

(THE  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY  OF  WAR) 

17.  What  is  the  leading  cause  of  war? 

18.  Is  national  anger  a  scientific  guide  to  national 
action  ? 

19.  What  is  the  chief  good  that  comes  from  war? 

20.  Why  do  battles  always  take  place  between  two 
armies,  or  between  two  sets  of  opposing  forces? 

21.  What  is  the  chief  evil  of  war? 

22.  Is  the  man  who  has  invented  a  deadly  instru- 
ment of  war  a  social  benefactor? 

(THE  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  RACE  PREJUDICE) 

23.  Why  do  different  races  have  different  stand- 
ards of  beauty? 

24.  Is  race  prejudice  innate  or  acquired  ? 

25.  Is  there  more  race  prejudice  against  the  Negro 
in  the  North  or  the  South  ? 

26.  Do  small  children  draw  the  color  line  ? 


244  Social  Psychology 

READINGS 

(THE  NATURE  AND  FUNCTION  OF  GROUP 
CONFLICTS) 

Bagehot,  Walter,  Physics  and  Politics,  Sects.  II,  V. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organisation,  Chs.  XXVIII-XXX. 

Social  Process,  Ch.  IV. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  pp.  100-196. 

Gumplowicz,  L.,  Der  Rasscnkampf. 

Howard,  G.  E.,  Social  Psychology,  (syllabus),  Sect.  III. 

Le  Bon,  Gustave,  The  Psychology  of  Revolution. 

Novicow,  Jacques,  Le  liittes  entre  societies  humaines. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  "Class  and  Caste,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol.,  XXII : 

461-76,  594-608,  749-60;  XXIII:  67-82. 
Simmel,  Georg,  "Sociology  of  Conflict,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol., 

IX :  490-525. 
Vincent,  G.  E.,  "The  Rivalry  of  Social  Groups,"  Amer.  Jour,  of 

Sociol.,  XVI :  469-82. 

(THE  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  WAR) 

Bird,  C,  "From  Home  to  the  Charge,  a  Psychological  Study  of 

the  Soldier,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Psychol.,  28:315-48. 
Eltinge,  Le  Roy,  Psychology  of  War. 
Hall,  G.   Stanley,  "Practical  Relations  between  Psycholog>-  and 

the  War,"  Jour,  of  Applied  Psychol.,  i :  9-16. 
Kelsey,  Carl,  "War  as  a  Crisis  in  Social  Control,"  Publ.  of  the 

Amer.  Sociol.  Society,  XII :  27-45. 
Lord,  H.  G.,  The  Psychology  of  Courage,  Ch.  XI. 
McLaren,  A.  D.,  "National  Hate,"  Hibbert  Jour.,  15  :407-i8. 
Marshall,  H.  R.,  "War  and  Human  Nature,"  North  Amer.  Rev., 

103 :  265-74- 
Morris,  C,  "War  as  a  Factor  in  Civilization,"  Popular  Science 

Mon.,  XLVII :  823-34. 
Nicolai,  G.  F.,  The  Biology  of  War. 
Novicow,  Jacques,  War  and  its  Alleged  Benefits. 
Pugh,  E.,  "The  Cowardice  of  Warfare,"  Fortnightly  Rev.,  99: 

727-34. 


Group  Conflicts  245 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XIX. 

Stratton,   G.    M.,   "The   Docility  of  the   Fighter,"   Intern.   Jour. 

of  Ethics,  26 :  368-76. 
Wells,  F.  L.,  "The  Instinctive  Bases  of  Pacifism,"  Atlantic  Man., 

118:  44-46. 

(THE  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  RACE  PREJUDICE) 

Cowen,  John,  "Race  Prejudice,"  Wcsiminster  Rev.,  173 :  631-39. 

Ellis,  G.  W.,  "The  Psychology  of  American  Race  Prejudice," 
Jour,  of  Race  Development,  5  :  297-315. 

Leopold,  Lewis,  Prestige,  pp.  33-43. 

Morse,  J.,  "The  Psychology  of  Prejudice,"  Intern.  Jour,  of  Eth- 
ics, XVII :  490-506. 

Shaler,  N.  S.,  "Race  Prejudices,"  Atlantic  Mon.,  58:510-19. 

Stone,  M.  E.,  "Race  Prejudice  in  the  Far  East,"  Natl.  Geo- 
graphic Mag.,  21 :  973-85. 

Thomas,  W.  I.,  "The  Psychology  of  Race  Prejudice,"  Amcr. 
Jour,  of  Social,  IX:  593-611. 

"Views  of  Dr.  Rizal,  the  Filipino  Scholar,  upon  Race  Differ- 
ences," Popular  Science  Mon.,  61 :  222-30. 


\^ 


Chapter  XIII. 
GROUP  LOYALTIES 


It  is  assumed  here  that  man  is  inherently  social,  that 
he  is  in  a  sense  a  product  of  group  life,  and  that  be- 
neath anti-social  actions  there  is  ordinarily  a  deep- 
seated  gregarious  nature.  It  is  in  the  play-day  of 
childhood  that  social  sympathy  and  group  loyalties  are 
developed  in  the  individual.  In  associating  with  par- 
ents and  particularly  with  other  children,  the  child  ex- 
periences the  growth  of  his  social  nature,  or  social 
personality. 

Through  associating  with  others,  the  spirit  of  toler- 
ation and  appreciation  develops.  As  a  result  of  asso- 
ciating, tolerating,  appreciating,  a  sense  of  loyalty 
takes  form.  In  every  stable  group  a  social  conscious- 
ness and  a  social  mind  is  present. 

By  associating  with  other  persons,  the  individual 
learns  that  they  have  feelings,  longings,  problems,  suf- 
ferings which  are  similar  to  his  own.  Consequently, 
a  reorganization  of  attitudes  occurs,  tolerance  develops, 
and  harmonious  actions  ultimately  follow. 

The  opinions  of  the  group  tend  to  survive  and  to  be 
integrated.  The  strongest  current  opinion  becomes 
the  esta1)lished  opinion  in  later  years;  it  gains  prestige 
with  years.  It  becomes  a  part  of  the  social  values  of 
the  group.      Into  the  mass  of  integrated   established 


Group  Loyalties  247 

opinion,  and  of  formulating  current  opinion,  the  child 
is  born.  Within  this  psycho-sociological  environment 
he  grows  up  and  from  it  his  thinking  receives  its  di- 
rections. Later,  his  matured  judgment  reacts  against 
some  of  the  elements  in  this  combination  of  past  and 
current  opinions,  and  he  may  become  the  exponent  of 
a  change  in  group  values,  of  new  group  values,  or  of 
the  established  values. 

Integrated  past  opinion  and  misty  current  opinion 
center  about  the  vital  phases  of  group  life.  A  funda- 
mental social  value  is  the  life  of  the  group  itself.  Each 
collectivity  must  hold  its  own  life  as  an  elemental  so- 
cial necessity.  The  group  will  fight  for  its  own  unity. 
Lack  of  group  unity  presages  group  disintegration. 

Group  morale  consists  of  group  self  control,  and  self 
confidence  among  the  rank  and  file  and  also  in  the 
leaders.  Beneath  this  confidence  there  must  be  a  gen- 
uine moral  force  of  honesty,  reliability,  co-operation, 
and  virility,  which  will  constitute  a  driving  and  a  re- 
sisting power. 

Group  life,  group  unity,  and  distinctive  group  pos- 
sessions, both  material  and  spiritual,  compose  the 
trinity  of  leading  social  values  that  have  been  created 
through  human  association.  "An  abiding  affection 
for  the  fatherland  and  for  principles  of  liberty,  of 
opportunity,  and  of  fraternity  which  the  group  may 
have  worked  out  represent  the  highest  social  apprais- 
als."^ 

I.  The  Social  Psychology  of  Patriotism.  Patriot- 
ism is  group  loyalty.  It  is  the  tangible  group  response 
which  is  excited  by  an  attack  upon  the  group  values. 

'F.  H.  Giddings,  Principles  of  Sociology,  pp.  117  fF. 


24S  Social  Psychology 

It  is  a  complex  sentiment;  it  is  a  specialized  form  of 
love. 

Patriotism  is  as  old  as  human  affection.  It  origin- 
ally was  love  of  family  or  more  particularly  loyalty  to 
the  pater,  or  the  patriarchal  head  of  the  family.  Pa- 
triotism was  at  one  time  in  its  evolution  synonymous 
with  patriarchalism  and  with  familism.  It  was  once 
love  of  home;  at  another  time,  love  of  clan.  In  the 
days  of  Abraham  it  was  loyalty  to  Abraham  and  his 
household.  Among  the  mountaineers  today  in  unde- 
veloped regions  of  the  earth  where  a  clan  organization 
rules,  patriotism  is  clan  loyalty. 

In  the  hey-day  of  tribal  society,  patriotism  was  loy- 
alty to  the  tribe ;  it  was  tribalism.  Among  the  Bantus, 
patriotism  is  Bantu-loyalty.  Among  the  Iroquois,  pat- 
riotism was  loyalty  to  the  Iroquois. 

With  the  rise  of  the  state,  patriotism  became  nation- 
alism. Today  among  civilized  peoples  patriotism  is 
almost  synonymous  with  loyalty  to  the  nation.  It  is 
a  sentiment  which  manifests  a  deep  attachment  to  geo- 
graphic territory  and  other  national  values.  The 
Psalmist  illustrated  the  force  of  patriotism  when  he 
declared  :^ 

By  the  rivers  of  Babylon,  there  we  sat  down,  yea, 
we  wept,  when  we  remembered  Zion. 

If  I  forget  thee,  O  Jerusalem,  let  my  right  hand 
forget  her  cunning. 

If  I  do  not  remember  thee,  let  my  tongue  cleave  to 
the  roof  of  my  mouth ;  if  I  prefer  not  Jerusalem  above 
my  chief  joy. 

Patriotism  is  lovalty  to  patria — bv  birth  or  by  adop- 
"Psalm  137. 


Group  Loyalties  249 

tion.  The  individual  identifies  his  Hfe  with  that  of 
his  country.  He  becomes  an  integral  and  controlling 
factor  in  its  aims  and  activities.  Patriotism  enables 
the  individual  to  expand  beyond  the  limitations  of  his 
individuality  and  partially  if  not  fully  to  identify  him- 
self with  interests  which  are  larger  and  more  impor- 
tant than  his  own. 

Under  national  patriotism,  familism  continues.  He 
who  is  not  loyal  to  his  family  scarcely  knows  how  to 
be  loyal  to  his  nation.  If  one  is  not  true  to  a  small 
social  unit,  how  can  he  be  faithful  to  a  large  collec- 
tivity ? 

Under  nationalism,  tribalism  also  has  a  place.  It 
takes  the  form  of  loyalty  to  local  community,  city, 
province,  or  state.  Community  loyalty  is  necessary  in 
the  building  of  a  strong  nation-state,  otherwise  there 
would  be  too  great  a  hiatus  between  the  national  struc- 
ture and  the  family  structures.  The  national  roof 
must  be  sustained  by  large  and  permanent  pillars  as 
well  as  by  a  large  number  of  small  supports.  Famil- 
ism and  communityism  take  subordinate  but  vital 
places  in  nationalism. 

The  most  powerful  form  of  group  consciousness 
that  has  yet  developed  is  that  form  of  national  patriot- 
ism which  arises  in  connection  with  national  defense 
and  national  attack.  At  first  it  is  usually  highly  emo- 
tional and  charged  with  electrical  feelings,  but  after 
a  time  it  settles  down  into  a  stubborn  struggle  for 
group  existence. 

The  members  of  a  nation-state  may  be  classified  un- 
der several  heads  in  regard  to  their  loyalty  to  the  state 
in   which  thev  live.     There  are   several   brands  and 


250  Social  Psychology 

grades  of  patriotism,  (i)  Pugnacious  patriotism  is 
an  expression  of  the  combative  instinct.  There  are 
many  individuals  who  are  continually  on  the  lookout 
for  trouble.  In  a  larger  sense,  many  persons  are  will- 
ing to  rush  their  country  into  a  war  upon  the  slightest 
provocation.  If  an  American  in  a  foreign  country  has 
been  insulted  or  killed — regardless  of  his  guilt, — these 
pugnacious  persons  would  have  their  country  declare 
war  immediately.  Jingoists  abound.  Combative  pa- 
triotism does  not  wait  for  an  investigation  of  causal 
circumstances.  It  works  continuously  for  an  aggres- 
sive foreign  policy;  it  is  impatient  with  negotiation. 

(2)  Professional  patriotism  characterizes  the  mili- 
tary class.  It  is  valuable  in  a  society  where  force  pre- 
dominates. Its  weakness  is  its  tendency  toward  arro- 
gancy  and  hard-heartedness,  and  an  exaggerated  de- 
sire for  promotion.  The  arrogancy  weakness  has  been 
discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter;  the  promotion  am- 
bition is  illustrated  in  the  extreme  case  of  the  officer 
who  some  years  ago  expressed  a  hope  that  the  United 
States  would  declare  war  upon  the  Republic  of  Pan- 
ama, after  she  had  committed  a  slight  breach  of  court- 
esy. When  asked  for  his  reason,  he  candidly  replied: 
"Because  my  chances  for  promotion  would  be  greatly 
increased."  '''^■'-  > 

(3)  Profiteering  patriotism  raises  its  bland  features 
in  spite  of  the  need  for  war  sacrifices.  After  the 
entry  of  the  United  States  into  the  World  War,  the 
cry  was  raised,  "Business  as  usual."  But  everyone 
knew  that  if  the  war  was  to  be  won,  business  could  not 
go  on  as  usual.  Before  the  United  States  declared 
war,  the  dividctids  of  certain  companies  which  were 


Group  Loyalties  251 

manufacturing  war  materials  rose  rapidly,  and  after 
our  war  declaration,  the  war  profits  of  these  firms 
created  millionaires.  One  American  openly  and 
shamelessly  boasted :  "This  war  has  surely  been  a 
fine  thing  for  me.  If  it  lasts  two  years,  I  will  have 
made  enough  money  to  live  in  leisure  the  rest  of  mv 
life." 

Another  profiteering  patriot  sold  to  the  government 
shoddy  clothing  for  the  soldiers  and  sailors.  Still  an- 
other set  up  wooden  images  of  the  Kaiser,  and  playing 
upon  the  war  feelings  of  the  passers-by,  invited  them 
to  "Swat  the  Kaiser" — for  ten  cents  a  throw.  A  the- 
ater owner  subscribed  heavily  to  one  of  the  war  funds 
and  then  advertised  that  fact  widely.  His  theater 
drew  unusually  large  crowds  of  people,  who  felt  that 
they  should  patronize  such  an  unusually  generous  pro- 
prietor and  "patriot."  The  profiteer  hoists  the  flag, 
but  locks  up  coal  in  his  mines  while  women  and  chil- 
dren suffer  from  the  cold.  He  buys  up  foodstuffs  and 
holds  them  while  prices  rise  and  people  starve. 

(4)  Faddish  patriotism  gives  benefit  "teas"  in  war 
times,  despite  the  fact  that  such  affairs  provide  an  un- 
necessary fourth  meal.  A  young  woman  who  wore  a 
service  star  was  found  to  have  no  nearer  relative  in 
the  World  War  than  a  cousin  whom  she  had  never 
seen.  She  easily  justified  to  herself  this  action  on  the 
grounds  that  "all  the  other  girls  are  wearing  service 
stars."  In  certain  cases  the  carrying  of  flags  upon 
the  front  of  automobiles  includes  a  degree  of  faddish 
patriotism.  Shortly  after  the  United  States  declared 
war  in  19 17,  as  high  as  forty  per  cent  of  automobiles 
carried  flags,  but  six  months  later  the  proportion  fell 


252  Social  Psychology 

to  less  than  five  per  cent.     In  the  meantime,  however, 
the  real  patriotism  of  the  people  had  greatly  increased. 

(5)  Patriotism  is  sometimes  adventuresome.  The 
slogan,  "Join  the  navy  and  see  the  world,"  recognizes 
the  adventuresome  element  in  patriotism.  In  the 
World  War  there  were  many  young  men  that  volun- 
teered who  stated  that  they  were  moved  strongly  by 
the  desire  to  go  abroad  and  see  "the  sights,"  and  who 
were  willing  to  take  a  risk  in  returning  alive. 

(6)  Conspicuous  patriotism  exhausts  itself  in  ap- 
plauding the  flag  or  in  patriotic  statements,  but  whines 
when  asked  to  observe  meatless  days  and  to  refrain 
from  using  wheat  bread.  It  carries  the  flag,  but  se- 
cretly indulges  in  profiteering  and  self-indulgence.  It 
is  generally  hypocritical;  it  evaporates  in  patriotic 
statements.  The  conspicuous  patriot  loudly  abuses 
others  for  not  going  to  war — when  he  knows  that  he 
can  remain  safe  at  home. 

(7)  Pacific  patriotism  is  two-fold,  (a)  There  are 
group  members  who  believe  in  peace  at  any  price.  As 
practical  citizens  they  are  mistaken  and  sometimes 
dangerous.  It  is  necessary  in  times  of  group  crisis 
to  be  willing  to  fight  to  save  those  social  values  which 
the  group  through  the  slow  process  of  time  has  ac- 
quired. As  long  as  powerful  national  wolves  are 
loose  in  the  world,  it  is  folly  to  believe  in  peace  at  any 
price.  In  such  a  case  a  nation  may  be  called  on  to 
fight  not  only  for  itself  but  for  the  values  which  civil- 
ization has  slowly  and  painfully  constructed.  Peace- 
at-any-price  individuals  possess  a  willingness  to  under- 
go hardships  and  even  to  die  for  the  principles  they 
represent.     They  frequentlv  possess  those  fine  moral 


Group  Loyalties  253 

qualities  which  cannot  be  found  in  the  loyal  but  trucu- 
lent chauvinist. 

(b)  The  other  type  of  pacifist  patriot  tries  all  hon- 
orable methods  of  solving  international  controversies 
before  resorting  to  war.  In  ordinary  peace  times 
practically  every  American  would  come  within  this 
category.  Such  persons  believe  in  the  principles  of 
peace  rather  than  of  war  as  means  of  progress.  In 
time  of  war,  however,  such  a  declaration  is  likely  to  be 
grossly  misunderstood.  At  such  a  time  any  type  of 
pacifist  is  anathema. 

(8)  Provincial  patriotism  is  exaggerated  partisan- 
ship. It  praises  the  tenets  of  one  political  party  and 
denounces  the  entire  programs  of  other  parties.  It 
magnifies  and  places  the  interests  of  one  section  of  the 
country  ahead  of  the  welfare  of  the  whole  nation.  It 
measures  long  distances  with  the  yard-stick  that  it 
uses  in  its  own  provincial  area.  It  opposed  the  Louis- 
iana Purchase  and  the  acquisition  of  the  Philippines. 
It  would  settle  the  Japanese  problem  in  the  LTnited 
States  irrespective  of  international  justice.  It  would 
prevent  our  nation  from  functioning  fully  in  the 
League  of  Nations.  Today,  as  in  the  time  of  Epami- 
nondas,  there  are  too  many  provincial  patriots  in  the 
world. 

(9)  Chauvinistic  patriotism  is  dominated  by  watch- 
words and  phrases.  It  is  the  direct  descendant  of  the 
boastful  attitudes  of  lower  races.  It  wildly  shouts, 
"My  country,  right  or  wrong,"  when  its  country  may 
be  already  on  the  rocks.  It  forgets  that  the  slogan, 
"My  country,  right  or  wrong,"  made  Germany  a 
menace  to  the  world.     It  does  not  possess  the  courage 


254  Social  Psychology 

to  face  national  evils  and  to  assist  constructively  in 
righting  maladjustments,  thereby  strengthening  the 
nation. 

(10)  True  national  patriotism  is  based  on  the  be- 
lief that  there  must  be  nation-groups  as  necessary 
intermediate  structures  between  the  family  and  the 
community  on  one  hand  and  the  world  order  on  the 
other.  It  begins  more  or  less  irrationally  and  is 
closely  connected  with  the  accident  of  birthplace. 
One  comes  to  love  his  native  land,  even  though  its 
faults  may  be  many.  Wherever  one  finds  food  and 
shelter  and  kindly  ministrations,  one  feels  patriotic. 

True  national  patriotism  is  national  love  divorced 
from  all  selfish  motives.  It  develops  with  the  recogni- 
tion that  one's  nation  group  is  playing  a  role  of  unself- 
ishness in  the  world.  It  is  expressed  not  only  in  ex- 
citing war  times,  but  in  the  most  monotonous  days  of 
peace.  True  patriotism  functions  in  both  peace  and 
war,  but  it  is  far  more  difficult  to  be  patriotic  in  peace 
than  in  war.  In  the  routine  days  of  the  work-a-day 
world,  private  interests  press  forward  and  command 
attention.  As  a  result,  the  individual  forgets  to  go  to 
the  polls,  neglects  to  study  the  merits  of  candidates, 
fails  to  keep  in  touch  with  his  representatives  in  legis- 
lative and  administrative  positions — in  short,  to  be 
truly  patriotic. 

( 1 1 )  Super-patriotism  is  a  high  order  of  true  na- 
tional patriotism.  It  gives  all  for  the  sake  of  its 
nation  when  fighting  in  a  righteous  cause.  Super- 
patriots  include  the  Joan  of  Arcs  and  the  George 
Washingtons,  the  heroes  of  Zeebrugge  and  the  Ar- 
gonnc,  and  the  unknown,  brave  mothers  and  fathers 


Group  Loyalties 


-D.l 


who  have  given  up  sons  and  daughters  anywhere  in 
a  righteous  national  cause. 

(12)  Besides  loyalty  to  family,  to  community, 
to  nation-state,  the  trend  of  social  evolution  is  pro- 
ducing another  type  of  collective  loyalty — interna- 
tionalism. The  world  is  now  on  the  verge  of  forming 
an  international  consciousness  and  a  sense  of  planetary 
values.  President  Wilson's  now  famous  pleas  for 
world-wide  democracy  and  the  organization  of  the 
friendship  of  the  w^orld  are  forerunners  of  the  rise  of 
a  new  world  society. 

Unfortunately,  international  patriotism  is  divided 
into  two  opposing  types,  (a)  Industrial  internation- 
alism holds  that  the  industrial  classes  throughout  all 
countries  should  organize  in  a  world  order  and  re- 
nounce the  existing  national  governments  which  are 
the  tools  of  capitalism.  Industrial  internationalism 
is  an  outgrowth  of  Marxian  socialism  and  closely 
allied  to  Bolshevism.  Industrial  internationalism  fails 
to  recognize  that  its  program  runs  counter  to  the  laws 
of  social  evolution  and  of  democratic  growth.  No 
stable  international  order  can  be  built  on  class  con- 
sciousness alone.  A  permanent  world  structure  can- 
not be  suspended  in  mid-air,  supported  chiefly  or  only 
by  individual,  familial,  or  communal  units. 

(b)  Democratic  internationalism  is  scientifically 
founded.  Upon  individuals,  the  family  rests.  Upon 
family  groups,  the  community,  city,  or  province  de- 
pends. Upon  individuals,  families,  and  communities, 
the  nation  relies.  Upon  all  these  constituent  elements, 
and  only  so,  an  enduring  world  organization  can  be 
constructed.     Ordinarily  family  loyalty  fits  harmoni- 


256  Social  Psychology 

ously  into  national  loyalty,  without  disrupting  or 
weakening  the  former.  Similarly,  there  is  no  reason 
why  national  loyalty  should  suffer  by  locating  it  prop- 
erly within  the  boundaries  of  democratic  internation- 
alism. An  individual  who  has  learned  rationally  to 
be  loyal  to  his  nation  will  be  no  less  a  national  patriot 
by  catching  a  vision  of  the  larger  internationalism. 

Democratic  internationalism  is  built  upon  the  high- 
est virtues  and  the  best  moral  characteristics  of  the 
nation.  It  recognizes  that  points  of  view  naturally 
vary  in  different  national  habitats.  It  would  not  de- 
stroy nations  since  they  are  selfish,  for  the  same  rea- 
son that  a  nation  would  not  destroy  its  citizens  because 
they  likewise  are  selfish. 

Democratic  internationalism  would  dignify  nation- 
alism and  make  it  a  nobler  sentiment.  It  would  end 
economic  conflict  between  nations  for  the  same  reason 
that  such  conflict  was  stopped  between  the  colonies 
when  the  United  States  was  formed.^  It  would  event- 
ually seal  the  doom  of  military  and  naval  barriers 
between  nations  for  the  same  reason  that  it  has  never 
been  necessary  to  separate  the  United  States  from 
Canada  by  fortifications  and  dreadnoughts. 

Planetary  good  feeling  will  develop  concomitantly 
with  a  world-wide  cultural  uniformity  and  enlarged 
means  of  communication.  While  commerce  and  re- 
ligion have  strong  international  organizations,  educa- 
tion is  still  represented  on  a  world  scale  only  by 
international  congresses  on  various  subjects. 

(13)  Traitorism  is  loyalty  to  an  outside  group. 
Traitorism  takes  several  forms.    It  may  show  a  hypo- 

'Olher  phases  of  this  type  of  international  patriotism  may  be 
found  in  C!haptcr  VI  of  The  New  Patriotism  by  C.  E.  Fayle. 


Group  Loyalties  2^y 

critical  loyalty  to  the  country  to  which  genuine  loy- 
alty is  due,  and  a  secret  allegiance  to  some  other 
country.  It  sometimes  flies  the  flag  but  exploits  the 
helpless  group  members.  It  squanders  money  in  sin- 
ful living.  It  evades  the  payment  of  taxes.  It  fre- 
quently defies  the  laws  of  the  nation. 

In  recent  years,  immigrants  have  migrated  to  the 
United  States  from  European  countries  where  both 
political  and  industrial  autocracy  ruled  and  where 
revolution  seemed  to  be  the  only  method  to  get  jus- 
tice. Some  of  these  immigrants,  feeling  keenly  a 
sense  of  economic  injustice  in  our  country,  have  un- 
dertaken to  spread  revolutionary  propaganda  through- 
out the  land.  But  they  are  traitors.  They  fail  to 
see  that  the  ballot  is  open  and  that  when  they  and 
others  who  are  now  fighting  against  social  injustice 
show  enough  co-operative  spirit  to  elect  a  president 
of  the  United  States  they  can  have  their  way  in  this 
country  where  majorities  and  pluralities  rule.  When 
the  working  men  of  this  country  manifest  sufficient 
co-operative  spirit  to  elect  a  workingman  president  of 
the  nation,  the  power  to  rule  will  be  in  their  hands. 
In  view  of  such  generous  possibilities  in  our  democ- 
racy, revolutionary  propaganda  is  atrocious;  revolu- 
tionary propagandists  are  traitors  to  the  principles 
upon  which  our  republic  has  been  built,  and  to  which 
loyal  Americans  pledge  their  fealty  and  lives. 

Our  people  need  to  develop  in  these  transition  days 
a  new  respect  for  law  and  order — this  is  the  greatest 
need  of  the  new  patriotism.  Persons  of  high  or  low 
estate  must  increase  their  interest  in  public  welfare. 
People  must  enlarge  their  national  patriotism  by  par- 


258  Social  Psychology 

ticipating  in  the  formation  of  a  planetary  spirit. 

Further,  philosophy  and  religion  have  formulated 
still  more  comprehensive  group  loyalties.  For  exam- 
ple, Christianity  has  dared  to  project  a  loyalty  which 
includes  not  only  the  present  world  society,  but  also 
that  unnumbered  host  who  have  run  well  and  finished 
tbis  earthly  race :  in  fact  a  vast  society  of  which  the 
living  earthly  group  is  but  a  manifestation.  Chris- 
tianity has  been  so  radical  that  unto  familism,  tribal- 
ism, nationalism,  internationalism,  it  has  added  uni- 
versalism  in  the  sense  of  a  loyalty  to  a  society — the 
Kingdom  of  God — infinite  in  size  and  character,  with- 
out beginning  and  without  end. 

PROBLEMS 

(GENERAL) 

1.  What  is  group  loyalty? 

2.  Should  the  chief   basis   for  religious   fellow- 
ship be  "agreement  in  belief  or  agreement  in  ideal"? 

3.  Why  does  the  morality  of  diplomacy  and  war 
lag  behind  the  morality  of  individuals? 

4.  Why  do  woman's  legal  rights  "lag  behind  her 
generally  acknowledged  moral  rights"? 

5.  What  is  the  social  psychology  of  shibboleths 
and  slogans? 

6.  What  is  your  definition  of  patriotism? 

7.  Explain  :     "A  great  deal  of  so-called  patriot- 
ism is  but  the  crowd  emotion  of  the  nation." 

(THE  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  PATRIOTISM) 

8.  Name    and    ilhistratc    a    type    of    patriotism 


Group  Loyalties  259 

which  is  not  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

9.     Can  a  good  patriot  be  a  bad  citizen? 

10.  How  do  you  rate  the  patriotism  in  the  senti- 
ment:    My  country,  right  or  wrong. 

11.  Distinguish  between  instinctive  and  reflective 
patriotism. 

12.  Do  you  agree  with  Thorstein  Veblen's  state- 
ment that  "patriotism  is  useful  for  breaking  the  peace, 
not  for  keeping  it." 

13.  What  is  "patrioteering"  ? 


14 

15 
16 

17 


Should  there  be  an  international  flag? 
When  is  it  easiest  to  be  patriotic  ? 
When  is  it  the  most  difficult  to  be  patriotic  ? 
Distinguish   between   patriotism,    nationalism, 


and  internationalism? 


READINGS 

(GENERAL) 

Brown,  H.  C,  "Social  Psychology  and  the  Problem  of  a  Higher 

Nationality,"  Intern.  Jour,  of  Ethics,  XXVIII:  19-30. 
Coe,  G.  A.,  "The  Basis  of  Social  Co-operation,"  Relig.  Ediicat., 

13 :  171-79- 
Coleman,  J.  M.,  Social  Ethics,  Chs.  VI,  VII. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organisation,  Part  VI. 

Social  Process,  Ch.  XXVIII. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  pp.  100-196. 

Democracy  and  Empire,  Ch.  IV. 

Hayden,  E.  A.,  The  Social  Will,  Ch.  I. 

Kropotkin,  Prince,  Mutual  Aid;  a  Factor  in  Evolution. 

Lloyd,  A.  H.,  "The  Social  Will,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Social.,  VIII : 

336-59. 
Lord,  H.  G.,  The  Psychology  of  Courage,  Ch.  XIII. 
Maclver,  R.  M.,  Community,  Bk.  Ill,  Ch.  IV. 


26o  Social  Psychology 

Ross,  E.  A.,  "The  Organization  of  Will,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol., 

XXI :  145-58. 
Vincent,  G.  E.,  The  Social  Mind  and  Education. 

(THE  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  PATRIOTISM) 

Butler,  N.  M.,  "Patriotism,"  Educational  Rev.,  51  78-86. 

Cooley,  W.  F.,  "Patriotism:     The  Two  Voices,"  Bookman,  46: 
136-42. 

Crawshay-Williams,  E.,  "The  International  Idea,"  Intern.  Jour, 
of  Ethics,  XXVIII:  273-92. 

Fayle,  C.  Ernest,  The  New  Patriotism. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  "Morale  in  War  and  After,"  Psychological  Bui.,  15: 
361-426. 

Hibben,  J.  G.,  "Higher  Patriotism,"  North  Amer.  Rev.,  201 :  702- 
709. 

Howard,  G.  E.,  "Ideals  as  a  Factor  in  the  Future  Control  of  In- 
ternational Society,"  XII :  i-io. 

Howerth,  I.  W.,  Work  and  Life,  Ch.  XI. 

"Patriotism,    Instinctive    and    Intelligent,"    Educational 

Rev.,  44:  1 3-24. 

Inge,  W.  R.,  "Patriotism,"  Quarterly  Rev.,  224:71-03. 

Mathews,  Shailer,  Patriotism  and  Religion. 

Nicolai,  G.  F.,  The  Biology  of  War,  Chs.  VII-IX. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  The  Study  of  Sociology,  Ch.  IX. 

Stewart,  H.  L.,  "Is  Patriotism  Immoral?"     Amer.  Jour,  of  So- 
ciol., 22 :  616-30. 

Veblen,  Thorstein,  The  Nature  of  Peace,  Ch.  II. 

Younghusband,    Francis,    "Patriotism    of    Humanity,"    Contemp. 
Rev.,  103 :  169-78. 


Chapter  XIV. 
GROUP  CONTROLS 


Individual  initiative  continually  conflicts  witli  group 
standards.  As  a  consequence,  the  individual  is  sub- 
ject to  many  types  of  social  restraint.  Although 
nearly  all  these  social  controls  have  arisen  from  past 
group  experiences,  they  are  not  alw^ays  adequate  guides 
for  limiting  current  individual  action.  Almost  all  the 
means  for  group  regulation  of  individuals  have 
evolved  spontaneously,  effectively,  and  slowly  from 
human  needs,  and  have  been  put  into  operation  bung- 
lingly.  Social  restraints  have  been  exercised  rarely  to 
meet  carefully  ascertained  group  w^elfare.  But  nearly 
all  possess  more  merit  than  their  haphazard  manner 
of  development  would  imply. 

~  ^iDcial  pressures  are  essential  to  progress.  Every 
group  exercises  control  over  its  members  as  a  matter 
of  group  self -protection  and  in  order  that  the  energy 
of  the  members  may  not  be  dissipated  in  socially  dis- 
integrating ways.  It  is  an  encouraging  sign  when  a 
group  does  not  rely  absolutely  upon  the  automatic  use 
of  controls,  but  begins  to  determine  for  its  constit- 
uents constructive,  telic,  and  socialized  methods  of 
change.  It  is  a  socially  hopeful  day  when  a  group 
undertakes  to  diagnose  itself,  and  upon  the  basis  of 
that  diagnosis,  to  establish  consciously  and  wisely  de- 


262  Social  Psychology 

termined  sets  of  social  restraints  and  social  encourage- 
ments. 

Social  controls  are  commonly  too  rigid  in  certain 
particulars,  too  lax  in  other  ways,  and  too  emotionally 
haphazard  in  nearly  all  regards.  Since  group  pres- 
sures generally  operate  as  objective  instruments,  the 
individual  is  occasionally  misjudged,  coerced  unjustly, 
and  inadvertently  encouraged  to  foment  social  sedi- 
tion. Often  he  is  not  properly  stimulated  to  make  his 
best  contributions  to  his  group  and  to  society. 

Consequently,  from  the  standpoint  of  group  welfare 
certain  exceedingly  vital  questions  must  be  faced. 
( I )  In  regard  to  any  new  movement,  how  much  social 
control  shall  a  group  exercise?  (2)  What  shall  be  the 
nature  of  this  control?  (3)  By  what  methods  shall 
it  be  applied?  If  too  much  pressure  is  exerted  by  the 
group,  individual  initiative  is  stifled  and  progress 
halted.  If  too  little  restraint  is  employed,  group  co- 
hesion is  endangered,  and  social  chaos  may  result. 
The  problem  is  not  only  one  of  quantity  of  control,  but 
also  a  matter  of  quality  of  control  and  of  the  time  of 
application.  For  example,  what  kind  of  control  shall 
a  parent  use  over  a  child  who  objectively  is  telling 
"stories,"  but  subjectively  is  giving  his  imagination 
free  rein?  Shall  the  teacher  use  the  same  variety  of 
control  in  handling  a  mischievous  boy  who  is  bubbling 
over  with  energy  as  in  dealing  with  one  who  is  deceit- 
ful? Shall  society  use  the  same  controls  in  prescrib- 
ing treatment  for  an  obstreperous  fanatic  as  for  a  de- 
linquent corporation?  Also,  shall  controls  be  applied 
bluntly,  arbitrarily,  belatedly,  or  shall  they  be  exercised 
through  the  persons  who  arc  to  be  controlled,  indi- 


Group  Controls  263 

rectly,  and  in  proper  season?     And   fundamentally, 
what  are  the  main  agencies  of  social  control  ? 

I.  Agencies  of  Social  Control,  (i)  Customs  and 
conventions  are  powerful  social  controls.  They  begin 
to  influence  the  child  from  birth,  or  even  from  before 
birth.  An  infant  is  born  into  a  maze  of  inherited 
traditions  which  determine  his  general  development 
during  the  years  of  his  helplessness.  Parental  cus- 
toms and  conventions  largely  determine  the  nature  of 
his  food,  his  earlier  habits,  and  the  stimulation  or  non- 
stimulation  of  his  thought-life.  As  soon  as  he  ven- 
tures from  parental  care,  he  finds  himself  in  a  net- 
work of  established  rules  of  conduct — in  school,  on 
the  playground,  at  church. 

The  prestige  of  custom  affects  the  adolescent  tre- 
mendously. Ceremony  and  ritual  combine  to  mold 
his  habits  and  his  feeling-attitudes.  When  an  indi- 
vidual is  initiated  into  either  a  fraternal  or  a  religious 
organization,  he  is  impressed,  by  means  of  the  ritual, 
with  the  importance  of  the  given  organization,  of  the 
ideals  of  the  group,  and  often  of  his  own  insignifi- 
cance. When  individuals  regularly  join  together  in 
singing,  they  become  imited  and  perhaps  permanently 
socialized.  Thus  consciously  and  unconsciously  they 
feel  the  force  of  ritual  and  ceremony. 

Taboo  is  another  custom — negative  in  nature — that 
operates  as  a  powerful  social  control.  "Thou  shalt 
not"  has  been  pronounced  in  relation  to  a  thousand 
phases  of  life,  all  the  way  from  primitive  Tierra  del 
Fuego  to  sophisticated  London,  and  from  the  historic 
tablets  of  Moses  to  the  forceful  warnings  of  a  mod- 


264  Social  Psychology 

ern  Roosevelt.  The  taboo  is  enforced  through  the 
assertion  that  evil  consequences  will  follow  its  viola- 
tion. Thus,  sometimes,  the  primitive  lad  is  kept  out 
of  the  cocoanut  tree,  the  modern  boy  from  the  water- 
melon patch,  and  the  adult  in  all  climes  from  the  broad 
road  that  leads  to  destruction. 

(2)  Practically  every  personal  belief  is  a  social 
control.  From  his  family,  play,  school,  and  church 
life,  the  individual  acquires  personal  beliefs  which 
fundamentally  affect  his  conduct.  As  a  result  of  these 
beliefs  he  prides  himself  upon  making  his  own  deci- 
sions and  upon  being  self-made,  whereas  the  various 
groups  of  which  he  has  been  a  member  have  in  reality 
made  many  of  his  decisions  for  him — by  their  teach- 
ings and  influence.  He  is  not  self-made  to  the  extent 
that  he  believes  and  boasts.  He  is  parent-made, 
school-made,  playground-made,  church-made  to  a  de- 
gree which  he  little  suspects  or  would  cheerfully 
admit. 

Personal  religious  beliefs,  according  to  which  the 
individual  lives  continually  under  the  direction  of  an 
all-powerful  Being  whose  eye  "seeth  in  secret,"  func- 
tion effectually.^  Both  law  and  public  opinion  can 
be  evaded,  but  not  a  Judge  who  is  all-seeing,  all  know- 
ing, and  all-powerful. 

(3)  Another  potent  social  control  is  law,  which  is 
a  phase  of  custom  with  present-day  modifications. 
Since  law  is  codified,  it  is  especially  commendable  as 
a  control.  It  is  written  with  exactness,  and  hence  is 
tangible,  economical,  and  specific.     It  is  highly  pre- 

'Scc  the  excellent  chapters  on  this  subject  by  E.  A.  Ross  in 

his  Social  Control. 


Group  Controls  265 

ventive,  because  its  provisions  can  be  published  suc- 
cinctly, far  and  wide,  and  with  due  notice  regarding 
its  methods  of  operation.  It  acts  with  certainty. 
Within  general  limits,  given  offences  against  society 
will  be  punished  in  specific  ways,  times,  and  places. 

The  weaknesses  of  law  in  exerting  social  pressures 
are  many.  It  often  acts  with  provoking  slowness, 
allowing  offenders  to  escape  due  punishment.  It 
does  not  search  out  the  subjective  phases  of  conduct, 
and  hence  its  judgments  are  sometimes  misplaced,  and 
sometimes  they  fail  to  reach  the  real  causes  of  group 
offense.  Its  action  is  frequently  paralyzed  by  the 
financial,  social,  or  political  power  of  the  offender. 

(4)  The  government  is  a  mighty  agent  of  control. 
In  the  United  States  under  war  conditions  the  govern- 
ment provided  for  the  compulsory  service  of  all 
men  between  certain  ages,  dealt  vigorously  with  open 
or  secret  disloyalty,  and  censored  the  news  and  hence 
partially  regulated  public  opinion.  In  Germany  in 
peace  times  the  government  through  its  control  of  the 
educational  system  brought  up  a  generation  accord- 
ing to  its  pre-conceived  aristocratic,  military  ideas. 
It  is  clear  that  to  preserve  the  liberties  of  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  state,  public  educational  institutions 
must  be  supplemented  by  equally  powerful  private 
educational  institutions  with  freedom  to  criticize  con- 
structively the  state  itself  and  the  social  values.  It  is 
not  so  important  to  build  a  strong  state  control  of 
citizens  as  it  is  to  train  strong  individuals  fundamen- 
tally imbued  with  a  nation-state  loyalty,  and  moti- 
vated by  public  interest  more  than  by  private  ad- 
vantasre. 


266  Social  Psychology 

(5)  Education  represents  a  multitude  of  controls. 
Education  through  the  schools,  the  press,  and  the  plat- 
form, as  well  as  through  the  other  main  social  insti- 
tions,  is  the  parent  of  all  social  controls.  Unconscious 
and  conscious  imitation  of  ideas,  beliefs,  and  feelings 
regulates  the  individual's  conduct.  The  group, 
through  education,  can  train  its  rising  generation  in 
any  direction  that  it  wills.  Consequently,  group  edu- 
cation must  not  be  determined  by  a  small  coterie  of 
selfishly  minded  individuals  but  by  the  entire  mem- 
bership. 

(6)  Art  wields  an  unconscious  influence  over  in- 
dividuals. The  music  of  three  centuries  ago  which 
sways  multitudes  today  effectively  molds  current  con- 
duct. Through  the  feelings,  music  melts  individuals 
and  re-directs  their  energies.  In  hymns  and  songs 
people  live  over  the  joys,  sorrows,  and  anticipations 
of  past  generations.  Community  singing  and  pag- 
eantry socialize  individuals. 

(7)  Public  opinion  rules  individuals."  Public 
opinion  is  the  general  background  of  the  socially  re- 
flected self.  The  force  of  public  opinion  is  so  power- 
ful that  only  the  strongest  minded  persons  can  stand 
out  against  it.  With  the  development  of  marvelous 
systems  for  the  transmission  of  ideas,  public  opinion 
often  gains  cyclonic  power. 

Public  opinion  compels  unpatriotic  individuals  to 
buy  Liberty  bonds,  to  respond  cheerfully  to  special 
public  service  calls,  to  live  better  morally  than  their 

'The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  public  opinion  as  a  form 
of  control  have  been  comprehensively  discussed  by  E.  A.  Ross, 
Social  Conlrol,  Ch.  X,  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XXII;  by  Tarde, 
l.'(tpi)ii(in  ct  la  foule;  by  Sighele,  La  foitle  crimincllc. 


Group  Controls  267 

desires  dictate,  to  meet  regularly  a  minimum  of  group 
responsibilities.  Public  opinion  functions  immedi- 
ately. Its  siren  voice  of  praise  or  blame  sounds 
promptly  after  the  individual  acts.  There  is  less  delay 
than  in  the  case  of  law. 

Public  opinion  is  an  inexpensive  method  of  regu- 
lating individuals.  Public  opinion  requires  no  lawyer's 
fees;  it  works  gratuitously.  It  is  preventive,  for  peo- 
ple fear  its  onslaught  and  modify  their  conduct  ac- 
cordingly. It  is  more  flexible  than  custom  or  law. 
It  strikes  ruthlessly  into  secret  places  and  fearlessly 
ferrets  out  motives. 

On  the  other  hand,  group  opinion  travels  on  the 
tongues  of  gossips  and  acquires  greatly  exaggerated 
forms  under  the  influence  of  professional  tale-bearers. 
It  is  not  precise  or  codified.  It  muddles,  distorts,  and 
contradicts.  It  provokes  people  to  violent  rage  and 
whimsical  performances.  It  arouses  people  and  sends 
them  out  with  the  hangman's  noose  in  search  of  of- 
fenders. It  produces  vigorous  denunciations  that 
sometimes  swiftly  float  away. 

Public  opinion  rarely  represents  group  unanimity. 
An  offender  can  always  find  some  group  members  in 
whose  opinion  his  offense  is  condoned,  excused,  or 
even  praised  and  applauded.  When  responsibility  is 
shifted,  as  is  done  oftentimes  in  the  case  of  corporate 
conduct,  public  opinion  wavers,  loses  its  force,  and 
allows  the  guilty  parties  to  escape  its  lash. 

The  agencies  of  social  control  are  manifold,  intri- 
cately related,  and  omnipresent.  They  operate  con- 
tinuously. They  are  in  constant  combat  with  individ- 
ual  initiative,    invention,    and    freedom.      They   have 


268  Social  Psychology 

functioned  primarily  as  repressive  agents ;  they  are  be- 
coming forces  of  social  encouragement. 

2.  Positive  Versus  Negative  Social  Control. 
Negative  group  control  is  suppression  of  the  individ- 
ual by  the  group.  Historically,  society  has  stressed 
social  inhibition  rather  than  social  inspiration.  It  has 
utilized  fear  rather  than  hope.  It  has  compelled 
rather  than  inspired.  It  has  impinged  rather  than 
stimulated.  It  has  carried  the  role  of  "Thou  shalt 
not."  It  has  featured  repression,  prohibition,  nega- 
tion. The  Hebrew  commandments  were  negative 
controls.  The  Puritans  established  a  set  of  negative 
controls  over  recreation  and  amusements.  Nearly 
everywhere  society  has  been  content  to  throw  offenders 
into  dark,  repressive  jails.  Parents  are  noted  for  their 
negative  injunctions  to  children — "Don't  do  this," 
"Don't  do  that." 

Society  has  an  elaborate  protective  philosophy 
which  is  fully  developed  as  a  negative  instrument.  It 
applies  opprobrious  names  to  any  individual  who 
varies  from  group  standards.  Heretic,  shyster,  quit- 
ter, boner,  knocker,  tom-boy,  sissy,  fraid-cat,  renegade, 
traitor — these  are  a  few  of  the  epithets  which  the 
group  uses  in  order  to  protect  itself.  In  the  navy, 
the  following  terms  illustrate  the  protective  philoso- 
phy which  serves  corrective  purposes :  white  mouse, 
handshaker,  scoffer,  scupper,  rookie,  bucker,  a  boat,  a 
kick  out.  The  immigrant  must  bear  the  following 
contact  with  protective  philosophy :  Dago,  Hunkie, 
Sheeny,  or  Chink.  Protective  philosophy  serves  use- 
ful purposes,  but  easily  vitiates  the  cause  it  repre- 
sents when  it  takes  an  imjust  form.     Epithets  when 


Group  Controls  269 

applied  to  incoming  immigrants  who  have  not  had  the 
time  or  the  opportunity  to  become  adjusted  are  de- 
plorable. They  greatly  hinder  the  cause  of  Ameri- 
canization. 

Negation  alone  is  insufficient;  it  must  be  accom- 
panied by  opportunities  for  expression.  If  a  child  is 
acting  wrong,  that  action  proves  that  he  possesses 
energy  which  is  seeking  an  outlet.  If  that  energy  is 
dammed  up  with  a  prohibition,  and  no  outlet  provided, 
it  will  presently  either  break  through  the  dam  or  go 
over  the  banks  at  some  unsuspected  weak  place,  caus- 
ing harm  to  the  individual  himself  and  probably  to 
others.  If  an  adult  commits  a  crime,  that  act  indi- 
cates the  presence  of  misdirected  energy.  If  society 
merely  shuts  up  the  criminal  in  a  dark  jail,  feeds  him 
poorly,  and  gives  him  a  hard  place  where  he  can  not 
sleep,  his  energy  will  express  itself  through  brooding 
and  automatically  produce  a  sense  of  injustice  if  not 
bolshevistic  desires. 

Positive  social  control  is  society's  method  of  en- 
couraging the  expression  of  individual  energy  con- 
structively. The  wise  parents  find  that  to  the  degree 
which  they  become  play  directors  for  their  children, 
the  need  for  formal  discipline  diminishes.  Likewise, 
when  a  city  establishes  a  recreation  park  in  a  con- 
gested district,  delinquency  in  that  neighborhood  de- 
creases. When  a  manufacturing  concern  gives  its  em- 
ployees representation  upon  managerial  boards,  indus- 
trial unrest  largely  disappears. 

The  positive  protective  philosophy  of  groups  has 
been  inadequately  developed.  The  "hero"  classifica- 
tion   of    positive    terms    is    much    smaller    than    the 


270  Social  Psychology 

"traitor"  and  "heretic"  set  of  negative  nomenclature. 
Further,  the  appeal  to  hope  does  not  touch  apparently 
as  deep  chords  of  human  nature  as  does  the  fear  of 
pain.  Nevertheless,  every  group  may  well  specialize 
upon  its  positive  protective  philosophy. 

A  primitive,  emotional  group  must  be  ruled  more 
or  less  arbitrarily — from  above  or  from  without — but 
an  educated  group  can  be  controlled  democratically — 
by  releasing  the  many  self-controlled  springs  of  socio- 
rational  interests  of  individuals.  Positive  social  con- 
trol endeavors  to  secure  "the  least  total  suffering,  and 
then  proportional  suffering,"  and  finally,  to  further  all 
the  constructive  processes  of  individual  and  social 
growth. 

Groups  have  exercised  social  encouragement  by 
awarding  honors,  degrees,  and  prizes.  But  these  have 
made  their  appeal  to  the  few.  Society  needs  on  a 
large  scale  to  institute  a  program  for  inspiring  every 
member.  The  masses  need  increased  inspiration,  not 
only  to  contribute  to  the  welfare  of  their  own  groups, 
but  to  society.  The  masses  need  to  be  given  con- 
structive mass  visions. 

Positive  social  control  is  synonymous  with  the  con- 
structive phases  of  social  telesis.  It  seeks  to  dis- 
cover the  underlying  principles  of  progress.  It  works 
out  programs  of  advance.  It  stimulates  all  individ- 
uals everywhere  to  subordinate  standards  of  individ- 
ual success  and  power  to  ideals  of  societary  welfare. 
It  strives  constantly  to  change  all  anti-social  into  social 
attitudes  and  activities. 

On  the  other  hand,  negative  social  control  often 
exercises  inadequate,   misplaced  influence  upon   indi- 


Group  Controls  271 

victuals.  It  has  unintentionally  made  the  need  stand 
out  strongly  for  positive  social  encouragement.  It 
has  caused  social  unrest.  The  underlying  law  of 
negative  social  control  is  that  the  more  nearly  social 
justice  is  obtained,  the  less  the  necessary  quantity  of 
negative  social  control. 

Positive  control  will  provide  all  individuals  with  a 
full  opportunity  for  creative  effort.  It  will  stimulate 
initiative,  invention,  and  leadership  ability.  It  will 
transform  imitators  into  inventors,  enrich  personali- 
ties with  socialized  desires,  and  crown  society  itself 
with  new  life  and  achievements. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  social  control? 

2.  In  what  way  have  you  felt  the  effect  of  group 
coercion  ? 

3.  Is  more  social  control  needed  in  a  dense  or  in 
a  sparse  population? 

4.  In  a  homogeneous  or  a  heterogeneous  popula- 
tion? 

5.  In  time  of  war  or  of  peace? 

6.  In  a  society  stratified  by  classes  or  in  a  society 
not  so  divided  ? 

7.  Why  is  it  sometimes  necessary  for  teachers  to 
use  "polite  coercion"  in  order  to  get  students  to  work  ? 

8.  In  what  particulars  is  there  a  high  degree  of 
social  control  in  the  United  States  today  ? 

9.  In  what  ways  is  there  very  little  control  in  our 
count  rv? 


272 


Social  Psychology 


10.  In  what  ways  in  the  United  States  is  more  con- 
trol needed  ?     In  what  regards  is  less  control  needed  ? 

11.  What  are  the  dangers  of  too  much  group  con- 
trol? 

12.  What  happens  when  there  is  too  little  group 
control  ? 

13.  In  what  ways  is  public  opinion  the  best  method 
of  control? 

14.  On  what  occasions  does  public  opinion  arise? 

15.  Is  the  sardonic  newspaper  cartoon  more  effect- 
ive in  moulding  public  opinion  than  the  good-natured 
cartoon  ? 

16.  Which  is  the  more  effective  in  forming  public 
opinion,  the  cartoon  or  the  editorial? 

17.  What  is  the  chief  advantage  of  law  as  an  agent 
of  control? 

18.  Why  are  the  laws  in  the  United  States  often 
easily  broken? 

19.  What  is  the  strongest  point  of  custom  as  a 
type  of  control? 

20.  Does  a  religious  institution  or  a  business  or- 
ganization bind  "its  members  more  closely  to  cus- 
tom"? 

21.  Define  :    The  protective  philosophy  of  a  group. 

22.  Explain :    The  tyranny  of  the  majority. 

23.  Distinguish  between  "the  tyranny  of  the  ma- 
jority" and  "the  fatalism  of  the  multitude." 

24.  Is  it  true  that  the  members  of  a  small  minor- 
ity, no  matter  how  meritorious  its  side  of  the  question 
may  be,  are  always  called  "traitors"  and  other  scurril- 
ous names,  by  an  overwhelming  majority? 

25.  Why  are  infamous  names  apph'ed  to  refractory 
members  of  a  group? 


Group  Controls  273 

26.  How  generally  are  individuals  aware  of  being 
under  group  control  ? 

27.  Wherein  would  lie  the  need  for  social  control 
if  every  member  of  society  were  completely  socialized? 

28.  Explain :  The  state  is  more  rapacious  than  it 
allows  its  citizens  to  be. 

29.  Who  are  the  professionals  whose  business  it  is 
to  maintain  the  social  order  ? 

30.  Distinguish  between  caste  control  in  India  and 
class  control  in  the  United  States. 

31.  Which  standards  do  people  think  about  the 
more :  Those  of  their  own  group,  those  of  the  class 
above  them,  or  those  of  the  class  below  them? 

32.  What  is  the  best  way  to  estimate  the  volume  of 
social  control  at  any  time  in  a  given  society? 

33.  Is  there  reason  to  believe  that  in  years  to  come 
social  control  will  be  more  necessary  in  the  United 
States  than  now  ? 

34.  Is  persecution  a  good  method  of  controlling  in- 
dividuals ? 

35.  Is  there  a  larger  place  for  authority  in  settling 
public  questions  than  in  settling  private  questions? 

36.  Is  it  wrong  to  punish  those  who  persist  in  folly 
that  hurts  only  themselves? 

37.  Illustrate :  "There  never  has  been  a  society 
that  did  not  tolerate  or  approve  some  conduct  that  was 
bad  for  it." 

38.  Which  has  the  greater  influence  in  developing 
a  student,  a  large  university  or  a  small  college  ? 

39.  Why  is  education  "the  most  efficient  form  of 
social  control  in  modern  society"? 

40.  What  would  be  the  efifect  on  progress  of  no 


274  Social  Psychology 

social  control? 

41.  Explain:  "We  who  would  like  to  love  our 
neighbors  as  ourselves  are  maintaining  systems  of  so- 
cial control  that  actually  prevent  us  from  doing  so." 

42.  Give  an  original  illustration  which  distin- 
guishes between  positive  and  negative  social  control. 


READINGS 

Blackmar  and  Gillin,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Parts  III,  IV. 
Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth,  (1915  edition),  Vol. 

II :  Chs.  LXXVI-LXXXVII. 
Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organisation. 
Davis,  Jr.,  M.  M.,  Psychological  Interpretations  of  Society,  Ch. 

XIV. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chs.  VIII, 

IX,  XVIII. 

An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XII. 

Foulke,  W.  D.,  "Public  Opinion,"  Nat'l  Munic.  Rev.,  Ill :  245-55. 
Hadley,   A.   T.,   "The   Organization  of   Public   Opinion,"  North 

Amcr.  Rev.,  201 :  iQi-g6. 
Hayes,  E.  C,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Part  IV. 
Jenks,  J.  W.,  "The  Guidance  of  Public  Opinion,"  Amer.  Jour,  of 

Sociol.,  1 :  158-69. 
Patten,  S.  N.,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilisation,  Ch.  VIII. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control. 

Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XXII. 

"The    Principle    of    Balance,"    Amer.    .four,    of   Sociol., 

XXIII :  801-20. 
Shepard,  W.  J.,  "Public  Opinion,"  Amer.  .four,  of  Social.,  XV: 

32-60. 
Sighele,  Scipio,  La  foule  criminelle.  Part  II,  Ch.  III. 
Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology,  Chs. 

Ill,  XIII. 
Social  Control,  Vol.  XII,  Publications  of  the  American  Sociolog- 
ical Society. 


Group  Controls  275 

Todd,  A.  J.,  Theories  of  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XXV. 

Vincent,  G.  E.,  "The  Rivalry  of  Social  Groups,"  Amer.  Jour,  of 

Social.,  XVI :  469-84. 
Ward,  L.  F.,  Dynamic  Sociology. 
Weyl,  Walter,  The  New  Democracy,  Ch.  IX. 
Woolston,  H.  B.,  "The  Urban  Habit  of  Mind,"  Amer.  Jour,  of 

Sociol,  XVII :  602-14. 
Yarros,  V.  S.,  "The  Press  and  Public  Opinion,"  Amer.  Jour,  of 

Sociol,  V :  372-82. 


Chapter  XV. 
SOCIAL  CHANGE  AND  PROGRESS 


I.  Elements  in  Social  Change.  Groups  like  indi- 
viduals rarely  remain  stationary — they  are  either  re- 
trograding or  advancing.  If  they  are  generating  en- 
ergy, they  are  going  forward  evolutionarily  or  revolu- 
tionarily. 

Too  much  social  restraint  produces  a  social  crust 
and  social  stupefaction.  If  there  be  sufficient  indi- 
vidual vitality  and  initiative,  unrest  will  ensue,  revolu- 
tions will  foment,  and  the  social  crust  will  be  broken. 
Hence,  through  revolutions  with  all  the  attendant  suf- 
fering, loss  of  life,  and  chaos,  the  group  may  progress. 
If  individual  enterprise  be  too  weak,  and  if  the 
body  politic  be  too  flabby,  then  the  crust  will  continue 
to  increase  in  thickness  until  group  life  is  smothered. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  too  little  or  too  inadequate  con- 
trol be  employed,  the  centrifugal  forces  will  gain 
undue  power,  anarchistic  and  bolshevistic  tendencies 
will  increase,  and  social  disintegration  will  likely  fol- 
low. 

There  are  two  main  forms  of  group  change  and 
progress — the  slow  and  the  rapid,  the  quiet  and  the 
disturbing,  the  natural  and  the  abnormal,  the  evolu- 
tionary and  the  revolutionary.  If  the  leaders  possess 
common  sense,  patience,  flexibility,  and  a  social  vision, 


Social  Change  and  Progress  277 

the  natural  and  normal  evolutionary  method  of 
growth  will  prevail.  With  an  educated  membership 
and  socially  wise  leaders,  revolutions  are  unnecessary. 

While  customs  afford  group  continuity  and  consti- 
tute social  heredity,  they  must  not  be  permitted  to 
impinge  too  much  or  to  extend  their  authority  beyond 
their  usefulness.  Customs  must  not  be  allowed  to 
grow  too  many  tentacles  or  to  grip  too  hard.  Al- 
though traditions  are  vital  to  group  unity  and  prog- 
ress, yet  they  may  stifle  the  very  spirit  which  gave 
them  their  original  power.  All  similar  tendencies 
must  likewise  be  guarded  against  if  evolutionary  pro- 
cesses are  to  swing  clear  of  obstacles. 

An  evolutionary  society  maintains  and  encourages 
the  spirit  of  constructive  criticism.  Outworn  ideas 
often  become  deeply  cherished  in  human  hearts  or 
firmly  entrenched  behind  brusque  fortifications.  If  a 
group  would  grow  steadily,  it  should  maintain  a  wel- 
come and  a  fair  hearing  for  new  ideas.  It  is  human 
nature  to  accord  grudgingly  an  open  mind  to  new  and 
disturbing  ideas.  It  has  been  well  said  that  one  of  the 
greatest  pains  in  the  world  is  the  pain  of  a  new  idea, 
but  it  is  to  such  ideas  that  evolutionary  societies  must 
grant  hearings.  History  is  full  of  painful  new  ideas 
which  have  been  ultimately  accepted.     Note  these : 

That  the  earth  is  round; 

That  slavery  should  be  abolished ; 

That  women  should  vote; 

That  a  League  of  Nations  should  be  established; 

That  laboring  men  should  organize ; 

That  everybody  should  work. 


278  Social  Psychology 

Migration  is  a  leading  cause  of  gradual  social 
change.  When  an  individual  moves  from  Iowa  to 
California  he  leaves  behind  him  much  of  the  old  fur- 
niture and  accumulated  bric-a-brac  and  some  of  the 
old  traditions.  From  the  moment  of  his  arrival  he  is 
frequently  "shocked."  Former  methods  of  acting  are 
found  to  be  out  of  place  in  the  new  environment.  One 
by  one  and  at  tremendous  mental  cost  changes  are 
made.  Five  years  later,  newcomers  from  Iowa  are 
astounded  at  the  changes  which  have  occurred  in  the 
lives  of  their  former  neighbors,  who  have  been  forced 
to  respond  to  the  call  of  new  life-conditions.  If  peo- 
ple migrate  in  the  early  years  of  life,  then  the  new 
elements  in  the  adopted  home  region  are  acquired  with 
alacrity. 

Often  the  newcomers  bring  new  ideas.  Sometimes 
immigration  will  awaken  a  stagnant  community.  At 
any  rate  there  is  usually  a  wholesome  interstimulation 
between  immigrant  and  native  which  gives  a  new  spirit 
to  the  one  or  the  other,  and  thus  to  the  entire  commu- 
nity. 

Imitation  is  essential  to  evolutionary  change.  As 
pointed  out  in  an  earlier  chapter,  no  one  imitates  a 
copy  exactly.  In  each  imitation,  modification  occurs. 
These  changes  small  in  the  particular  are  powerful 
and  world  moving  in  the  aggregate.  Again,  imitation 
is  the  process  by  which  new  ideas  and  inventions 
spread  from  one  individual  to  another,  and  from 
group  to  group. 

Invention  is  normally  a  part  of  evolution.  New 
ideas  are  the  initial  centers  of  change.  From  these 
centers  the  elements  of  progress  normally  pulsate  and 


Social  Change  and  Progress  279 

produce  irregular  but  continual  advances. 

Revolutionary  change  comes  only  and  belatedly 
when  the  methods  of  evolution  fail.  If  provisions  in 
a  dynamic  society  are  not  made  for  group  changes, 
then  the  suppressed  forces  will  foment,  and  gathering 
momentum,  will  burst  the  bonds  of  undue  suppression. 
Progress  may  ultimately  result,  but  the  cost  of  the  ex- 
plosion in  terms  of  human  suffering  and  social  damage 
will  be  excessive. 

Individuals  in  positions  of  group  authority  some- 
times shortsightedly  find  it  advantageous  to  make  the 
group  organization  static.  Then  they  encyst  them- 
selves in  this  organization,  and  having  gormandized, 
they  naively  rest — until  the  social  explosion  comes  and 
the  "top"  of  society  is  blown  off.  Then  comes  an  up- 
setting of  the  social  equilibrium,  a  period  of  chaos 
which  does  not  end  until  a  new  social  order  is  ob- 
tained. While  such  a  revolution  makes  some  gains,  it 
produces  disrespect  for  law  and  order  and  thus  fosters 
new  evils. 

Whenever  social  institutions  become  inflexible,  the 
forces  of  revolution  begin  to  move.  In  dynamic 
groups  there  are  four  causes  of  revolution.  ( i )  In- 
tellectual stagnation  at  the  top  holds  back  a  whole  in- 
stitution, even  a  nation,  until  the  mentally  suppressed 
but  alert  can  gain  control.  Sometimes  a  military  pro- 
gram fails  because  those  at  the  head  are  incom- 
petents. Individuals  in  authority  often  lack  the  men- 
tal vision  to  encompass  the  changes  which  are  brought 
by  a  new  era,  but  remain  in  power — until  thrust  aside. 
Preceding  the  French  Revolution,  an  intellectual  and 
privileged   class    developed   a   "rigid   organism."     In 


28o  Social  Psychology 

order  to  get  into  this  crusted  aristocracy,  it  was  neces- 
sary for  an  individual  to  have  sixteen  noble  ancestors. 
This  rigidity  was  a  leading  cause  of  the  social  explo- 
sion which  is  generally  called  the  French  Revolution. 

(2)  Political  autocracy  caused  the  American  Revo- 
lution. The  American  colonists  protested  time  and 
again  against  the  traditional  rules  of  political  unfair- 
ness which  England  had  arbitrarily  imposed.  But 
King  George  w^ould  not  heed,  and  hence  the  Revolu- 
tion was  inevitable. 

(3)  Economic  oligarchy  is  often  a  powerful  adjunct 
of  political  autocracy  in  causing  revolutions.  In  Rus- 
sia for  centuries  an  economic  oligarchical  rule  had  be- 
come politically  enthroned.  The  forces  of  discord 
gained  sufficient  strength  to  attempt  a  revolution  in 
1905,  but  failed.  Their  shattered  hopes  were  reorgan- 
ized, and  gaining  momentum,  completely  upset  the 
established  rule  of  special  privilege  in  19 17. 

(4)  Religious  cant  and  dogmatism  have  been  the 
causal  elements  in  one  bitter  church  schism  after  an- 
other. Religious  dogmatism  has  often  ruled  nations, 
especially  where  the  church  and  state  have  been  com- 
bined in  authority.  The  church  when  in  positions  of 
state  control  has  tended  to  become  inflexible.  Witness 
the  work  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition.  The  conserva- 
tism of  the  Church  of  Rome  produced  Lutheranism; 
and  of  the  Church  of  England,  Puritanism  and  Wes- 
leyanism. 

In  recent  years  in  England  whenever  the  agencies  of 
revolt  gain  sufficient  strength  to  threaten  a  serious  dis- 
turbance of  the  government,  a  Lloyd  George  appears 
with  crjncessions  strong  enough  lo  satisfy  temporarily 


Social  Change  and  Progress  281 


&' 


the  liberals  and  yet  of  such  character  that  the  conser- 
vatives begrudgingly  grant  them.  The  situation  then 
runs  somewhat  smoothly  until  another  social  disturb- 
ance occurs.  Thus  England  today  is  advancing  by 
skillful  adjustments  between  the  forces  of  evolution 
and  revolution,  and  proves  again  the  dictum  of  Turgot 
that  "well-timed  reform  alone  averts  revolution." 

As  a  method  of  procedure,  violence  breeds  violence. 
Revolution  creates  more  revolution — and  the  end  may 
be  the  destruction  of  the  virtues  of  civilization  as 
well  as  the  evils.  Revolutionists,  as  professionals,  are 
prone  to  fatten  on  social  evils,  even  when  these  mal- 
adjustments are  not  fundamental.  Revolutionists, 
after  overthrowing  an  old  order,  often  prosper  by 
living  upon  the  economic  fruits  of  a  disinherited  oli- 
garchy. But  the  day  comes  when  these  confiscated 
gains  are  exhausted,  and  the  revolutionists,  having 
failed  to  build  up  a  stable  order,  are  in  a  state  of 
mutual  distrust  and  anarchy.  Then,  progress  must 
be  courted  over  and  over  again  by  the  slow  processes 
of  evolution. 

A  group  tends  to  exert  the  greatest  pressure  upon  its 
most  vigorous  members — without  always  distinguish- 
ing between  its  benefactors  and  its  enemies.  It  vi- 
ciously crushes  out  its  conscientious  objectors  without 
observing  that  nearly  all  these  persons  possess  the  very 
courage  which  makes  any  group  strong.  By  fiendish 
methods  of  suppression  the  group  sows  the  seeds  of 
discontent  and  revolution. 

2.  A  Theory  of  Social  Progress.  Throughout 
this  book  definite  hints  have  been  given  from  the  view- 
point of  social  psychology  of  a  theory  of  social  prog- 


282  Social  Psychology 

ress.  In  these  concluding  pages  this  theory  will 
be  summarized  and  stated  more  exactly.  Social 
progress  is  determined  by  the  amount,  quality,  and 
methods  of  social  control,  and  upon  the  extent,  quality, 
and  persistence  of  individual  initiative,  inventiveness, 
and  leadership.  It  depends  upon  the  kind  and  degree 
of  encouragement  and  inspiration  as  well  as  of  re- 
straint which  the  group  exercises  over  its  members. 

Social  progress  is  the  result  of  a  constructive  con- 
flict between  individual  leadership  and  social  control. 
These  two  factors  are  in  constant  interaction.  Upon 
the  basis  of  the  cultural  development  of  his  day,  the 
individual  comes  upon  accidentally  or  after  a  carefully 
directed  search  finds  or  invents  a  new  idea  or  method. 
The  new  mode  must  pass  the  test  of  social  criticism. 
If  its  adoption  means  the  rejection  of  traditional 
standards,  then  a  conflict  ensues.  The  new  is  cham- 
pioned by  enthusiastic  leaders;  the  old,  likewise,  is 
championed  by  chivalrous  defenders.  The  conflict 
may  be  long  drawn  out,  as  in  the  case  of  the  fight 
over  prohibition;  or  it  may  be  short  and  swift,  as  in 
the  debate  in  our  Congress  over  conscription. 

If  the  proposed  activity  is  genuinely  superior  to 
the  established  procedure,  and  if  the  group  is  charac- 
terized by  a  fair  degree  of  flexibility,  then  the  new 
will  win  its  way  to  general  acceptance.  Upon  the 
basis  of  this  new  cultural  advance,  still  better  ideas  and 
methods  will  be  discovered  and  invented,  and  the  pro- 
cess described  in  the  preceding  paragraph  will  be  re- 
peated. Thus,  the  individual  initiates,  invents,  and 
leads;  and  the  group  adopts  and  supports. 

Cnnflict  is  a  distm-bin""  but  necessarv  element  bcitli  in 


Social  Change  and  Progress  283 

individual  and  in  group  progress.  It  is  conflict  which 
awakens  individuals  and  makes  them  active.  Conflict 
gives  zest  to  life,  drives  away  ennui,  and  prompts  the 
creative  expressions  of  personality. 

Conflict  must  not  occur  between  social  forces  that 
are  markedly  unequal,  lest  the  weaker  be  destroyed  and 
the  stronger  grow  flabby  through  lack  of  strenuous 
competition.  To  be  most  advantageous,  conflict  must 
occur  between  nearly  equal  forces.  Conflict  should 
not  be  suppressed  altogether,  but  socially  controlled — 
upon  the  grounds  of  relative  equality  and  of  social  pro- 
ductivity. 

Conflict  must  be  held  within  the  bounds  of  social 
rules  or  else  it  will  inevitably  and  quickly  descend  to 
the  levels  of  prejudice  and  brutality.  Social  regula- 
tions must  keep  conflict  upon  productive  planes  and 
raise  it  from  level  to  level — physical,  mental,  spiritual, 
in  order. 

Within  groups,  conflicts  must  be  kept  alive  between 
the  official  and  the  unofficial  forces.  Private  associa- 
tions must  be  free  to  compete  with  the  public,  or  gov- 
ernmental organizations.  The  political  party  in  power 
needs  continuously  to  face  the  honest  criticism  of  par- 
ties not  in  power.  Governmental  and  private  owner- 
ship of  economic  enterprise  are  both  essential. 
Neither  in  itself  alone  contains  all  the  elements  of  sus- 
tained progress.  One  v/orks  for  the  public  interest 
and  the  other  fosters  private  initiative.  But  with  all 
the  economic  resources  owned  and  operated  by  the 
government  a  powerful  class  control  would  result  and 
individual  initiative  would  decrease.  With  all  eco- 
nomic resources  owned  by  a  few  gigantic  interlocking 


284  Social  Psychology 

monopolies,  the  government  would  be  shackled  eco- 
nomically and  public  welfare  would  be  rendered  sub- 
servient to  the  caprices  of  the  privileged  few.  Under 
either  set  of  circumstances  group  retrogression  would 
sooner  or  later  take  place.  The  dual  existence  of  pub- 
lic and  private  economic  organizations  must  be  main- 
tained. Neither  complete  socialism  nor  complete  in- 
dividualism alone  will  guarantee  progress;  neither  by 
itself  allows  for  that  degree  of  conflict  and  wide- 
spread stimulation  which  is  essential  to  prolonged 
group  advancement. 

In  all  fields  of  human  endeavor  private  associations 
are  needed  to  experiment  with  new  ideas,  to  initiate 
new  movements,  and  to  prod  up  the  public  agents, 
keeping  them  upon  levels  of  efficiency.  The  public,  or 
official,  organizations  are  needed  to  represent  all  fac- 
tions and  to  carry  forward  activities  which  all  agree 
upon.  The  competition  between  these  two  types  of 
social  structures  will  be  widely  beneficial  and  mutually 
helpful  if  socially  harnessed  and  directed. 

In  a  similar  way  the  progress  of  the  world  depends 
upon  a  balanced  co-operation  between  large,  or  na- 
tional units,  and  the  international  group,  or  mankind. 
Any  world  order  is  clearly  unstable  that  rests  upon 
fifty  sovereign  groups,  each  deciding  what  is  right, 
honorable,  and  just  for  the  other  forty-nine,  and  each 
regulated  in  its  actions  by  no  inclusive  authority. 
The  nature  of  human  progress  during  the  past  millen- 
nium indicates  the  need  for  a  set  of  generally  accepted 
planetary  values,  a  thriving  world  opinion,  an  organi- 
zation of  the  friendship  of  the  world,  and  a  smoothly 
fimctioning   TyCague    of    Nations.     A    telic     program 


Social  Change  and  Progress  285 

along  democratic  lines  for  world  harmony,  justice,  and 
progress  is  imperative.  If  it  is  necessary  and  wise  to 
form  judicious  plans  for  the  individual,  the  industrial 
corporation,  the  church,  the  nation-state,  how  much 
greater  is  the  need  and  the  wisdom  of  consciously 
making  provision  for  world  progress  ? 

National  conflicts  must  not  continue  upon  the  de- 
structive levels  of  physical  combat,  secret  alliances, 
balances  of  power,  competitive  consumption,  but  upon 
the  slowly  ascending  inclines  of  productive  competi- 
tion and  social  benefit.  The  national  units  must  each 
give  a  portion  of  its  power  to  a  world-inclusive  or- 
ganization, which  shall  make  the  rules  for  all  conflicts 
and  competitions.  Each  shall  then  play  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  world  society  and  within  the  bounds 
determined  by  economically  productive  and  socially 
meritorious  standards. 

Any  group  of  individuals  must  determine,  if  it  would 
wisely  progress,  the  direction  which  its  development 
may  best  take.  It  must  decide  upon  the  types  of  con- 
trol it  shall  use  for  different  individual  members.  It 
must  stress  positive  control,  putting  liberal  premiums 
upon  individual  initiative,  new  ideas,  methods,  and  in- 
ventions along  its  chosen  paths  of  development.  The 
highest  lines  of  telic  advance  for  any  group  lie  in  the 
direction  of  world-wide  human  welfare. 

Such  a  trend  involves  the  rise  of  "sociocratic"  think- 
ing, according  to  which  all  processes,  even  the  most 
intellectual,  must  be  subordinated  to  the  socialized 
needs  of  human  beings.  Sociocratic  thinking  results 
in  a  willingness  to  recognize  and  encourage  ability 
wherever  found — under  anv  color  of  skin  or  on  anv 


286  Social  Psychology 

social  level.  Sociocratic  thinking  leads  to  active  de- 
mocracy. Sociocratic  thinking  and  acting  produce 
rich  and  well-balanced  personalities. 


PROBLEMS 

1.  Are  the  needs  of  the  individual  always  in  line 
with  group  advancement? 

2.  Are  the  needs  of  the  nation  always  in  the  di- 
rection of  world  progress? 

3.  Explain:  "When  everybody  thinks  alike,  no- 
body thinks  at  all." 

4.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  be  either  an  "individual- 
ist" or  a  "socialist"  in  matters  involving  human  prog- 
ress? 

5.  Does  life  in  the  United  States  today  stifle  one's 
opportunities  for  believing  and  judging,  and  increase 
one's  opportunities  for  doing  and  enjoying? 

6.  Illustrate  natural  social  progress. 

7.  Illustrate  telic  social  progress. 

8.  What  is  the  chief  cause  of  social  revolution  ? 

9.  What  is  the  greatest  danger  in  revolution? 
10.     What  is  the  main  advantage  of  social  evolu- 
tion? 


READINGS 


Bogardus,  E.  S.,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Ch.  XVI. 
Bosanquel,  Helen,  "The  Psychology  of  Social  Progress,"  Intern. 
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Social  Change  and  Progress  287 

Dewe,  J.  A.,  Psychology  of  Politics  and  History,  Ch.  I. 
Dewey,  John,  "Progress,"  Intern.  Jour,  of  Ethics,  26:  311-22. 
Drummond,  Henry,  The  Ascent  of  Man. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  IV, 

VIII,  XIII. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Democracy  and  Empire,  Ch.  V. 
Hayes,  E.  C,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Part  III. 
Keller,  A.  G.,  Societal  Evolution. 
Kelsey,  Carl,  The  Physical  Basis  of  Society,  Ch.  XI. 
Kidd,  Benjamin,  Social  Evolution. 
Maclver,  R.  M.,  Community,  Bk.  III. 
Patrick,  G.  T.  W.,  "The  Psycholog>'  of  Social  Reconstniclion," 

Scientific  Man.,  6 :  496-508. 
Tarde,  Gabriel,  Social  Laws,  Ch.  III. 

Urwick,  E.  J.,  A  Philosophy  of  Social  Progress,  Chs.  IX,  X. 
Ward,  L.  F.,  Dynamic  Sociology,  Vol.  II,  Ch.  X. 

Pure  Sociology,  Ch.  XX. 

Yarros,  V.   S.,   "Human  Progress;   The  Idea  and  the  Reality," 

Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol.,  XXI :  15-29. 


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INDEX 


Ability,  special,  193  ff. 

Ability  to  organize,  188 

Abraham,  248 

Absurdities  in  fashion,  146,  148, 
149 

Acquisitive  instinct,  the,  65  ff. 

Act,  nature  of  an,  97 

Activity  and  personality,  46,  47 

Adaptation  to  environment,  44 

Addison,  100 

Admiration,  78 

Adornment,  personal,  147 

Adventuresome  patriot,  252 

Age  differences,  126 

Agencies  of  social  control,  263 

Agreeable  tone  of  conscious- 
ness, 40 

Alter,  the  82 

Anger,  75,  76 

Anonymity,  202,  207 

Aristotle,  cited,  20,  100 

Art,  266 

Ascendancy,  individual,  19 

Social,  19 
Assembly,  205  ff. 
Association,  246 
Athletes,  college,  85 
Authority,  188 

Autocratic  leader,  189,  233,  280 
Auto-suggestion,  128 
Avocational  interests,  98 


Babylon,  169 

Bagehot,  Walter,  cited,  22 

Baldwin,  J.  Mark,  cited,  81,  214 

Balzac,  cited,  42 

Beliefs,  personal,  264 

Bell,  Alexander,  132 

Bergson,  Henri,  cited,  100,  loi, 

105,  130 
Bernhardi,  230 
Bi-partisan  crowds,  203 
Black-sheep  self,  the,  88 
Bluffing,  117 
Bolshevism,  67 
Brotherhood  of  man,  81 
Brutalizing  nature  of  war,  235 
Builder,  group,  191,  192 
Business  shrewdness,  66,  67 


California,  278 

Camp  Forrest,  Georgia,  122 

Canada,  256 

Carver,  T.  N.,  cited,  223  ff. 

Caste,  215 

Caucasians,  238 

Ceremony,  263 

Change,  social,  276  ff. 

Character,  109  ff.,  162 

Chauvinistic  patrioti.sm,  253 

Chicks,  instinctive  nature  of,  32 

China,  60,  121 

Chinese  immigrants,  240 


Index 


297 


Choosing,  35,  36,  45,  46 

Christianity,  225,  258 

Civilization  and  invention,  i8i 

Clark,  Francis  E.,  188 

Class,  the  middle,  20 

Clothing,  psychology  of,  147  ff. 

Coercion,  social,  262 

Cognition,  42 

College  athletics,  84 

Combative  impulses,  67  ff.,  221, 
236 

Comedy,  100 

Commercial  enterprise  and 
amusements,  63 

Commercialized  fashions,  141 

Communicating  group,  208 

Communicative  group,  94 

Communism,  weakness  of,  20 

Competition,  223  ff. 

Conflicts,  group.  221  ff.,  242, 
282  ff. 

Conflict  of  selves,  89 

Conjugal  love,  80 

Contra-suggestion,  125 

Consanquineal  love,  81 

Conscience,  112 

Conscious  reactions,  39 
Imitation,  128  ff. 

Consciousness,  group,  39,  81, 
149 

Conspicuous  patriotism,  252 

Conservation,  132 

Control,  group,  261 

Constructive  conflicts,  222 

Convention  imitation,  131,  153 

Conservation,  social  psychol- 
ogy of,  191 

Conway,  Martin,  cited,  190 


Cooley,  C.  H.,  cited,  22 

Cost  of  war,  234 
Co-operation,  57 

Courage,  232,  236 
Courtship,  148 
Craze,  the,  144  ff. 
Creators,  human,  180 
Crisis,  concept  of,  34 
Crowd  emotion,  20,  127 
Crowds,  202  ff. 
Crust  of  custom,  a,  159 
Cry,  the,  as  language,  94 
Cumulative  nature  of  inven- 
tions, 180 
Curiosity,  the  nature  of,  64 

And  invention,  170 
Curve,  the  mob,  204 
Customs,  263,  2^^ 
Custom  imitation,  19,  133,  156 
Cyclical  nature  of  invention, 

178 
Cyrus  the  Great,  170 


Daguerre,  174 
Davies,  G.  R.,  cited,  194 
Davis,  Jr.,  M.  M.,  cited,  22 
Decline  of  inventions,  the,  179, 

180 
Democratic  patriotism,  255,  256 
Deliberative  bodies,  207,  208 
Delinquency,  60 
Democracy  and  fashion,  140 
Dependable  self,  the,  109  ff. 
Dependableness,  38,  109  ff. 
Designers  of  fashions,  142 
Desire,  nature  of,  110 
Didactic  moralizing,  120 


298 


Social  Psychology 


Differentiation,  individual,  139 

Deviations  and  invention,  177, 
178 

Direct  suggestion,  118 

Disagreeable  tone  of  con- 
sciousness, 40 

Discovery,  nature  of,  174 

Discussion,  208 

Disposition,  109 

Dress  Reform  League,  150 

Duel,  mental,  the,  225,  226 

Durkheim,  cited,  228 


Edison,  Thomas  A.,  cited,  65, 

171 
Education,  no,  266 

And  suggestion,  128 
Effort  and  invention,  170 
Ego,  the,  82 
Egoistic  impulses,  61 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  cited,  26 
Emotion,  75  ff. 

Crowd,  20 
Endurance,  185 
Ennui,  75 
Enthusiasm,  203 
Environment,  42,  82 

And  genius,  193 
Eskimos,  95 
Evil,  the  social,  58,  59 
Evolution,  social,  277 
Executive  leaders,  190 

Bodies,  207,  208 
Existence,  struggle  for,  70 
Extravagance,  151 
Exuberance,  102 


Facial  gestures,  95 
Faddish  patriotism,  251 
Fads,  132,  146  flf. 
Family-building,  59,  212 
Familism,  248 
Fashion  imitation,  133,  138  ff. 

Inequality,  140 
Fashionable  woman,  cost  of, 

150 
Fatigue  and  habit,  2>7 

And  suggestibility,  126 
Fatigue  toxins,  126 
Fear  of  the  strange,  237 
Feelings,  the,  38  flf. 
Field  of  social  psychology,  13 
Fighting  impulses,  68  ff.,  221, 

236 
Fittest,  survival  of,  224 
Focalization  of  energy,  186,  194 
Freedom,  economic,  195 

Marginal,  35,  36,  46 

Of  speech,  203 
Freedom  and  fashion,  142 
Friendship  of  the  world,  232, 

236 
Functional  psychology,  13,  31 


Galton,  Francis,  cited,  193 
George,  Lloyd,  280 
General  psychology,  13 
Genius,  186,  192  flf. 
Germany,  education  in,  265 
Gestures  as  language,  95 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  cited,  227 
Gowin,  E.  B.,  cited,  185 
Grammatical  errors,  106 


Index 


299 


Gregarious  instinct,  57,  102, 

125,  202 
Group  builder,  191,  192 

Change,  276  ff. 

Conflicts,  221  ff. 

Consciousness,  249 

Contagion,  103 

Control,  15,  261  ff. 

Emotion,  127 

Laughter,  108 

Loyalties,  246  ff. 

Manipulator,  190 
-—Nature  of,  202  ff. 

Opinions,  246,  266  ff. 

Permanent,  211  ff. 

Progress,  276  ff. 

Representative,  191 

Selves,  90 

Temporary,  202  ff. 
— ,  Utility,  232 

Values,  247 
Groupings,   15 


Habit,  modification  of,  35 
Value  of,  35  ff. 

Habitual  reactions,  34  ff. 

Hate,  80 

Hayes,  E.  C,  cited,  26,  27 

Health  and  laughter,  loi 

Hebrew  race,  the,  61 

Heracles,  170 

Hereditary  leisure  classes,  148, 
149 

Heterogeneous  crowds,  202 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  cited,  100 

Home  conditions  of  delin- 
quents, 60 


Homogeneous  crowds,  202 
Howard,  George  Elliott,  cited, 

25,  26,  241 
Human  cost  of  war,  234 
Human  nature,  112 
Hume,  cited,  20,  21,  57,  89,  90 
Hypnotic  influence,  191 
Hypnotism,  119 


Ideas,  motor  character  of,  117 
Idiomatical  errors,  106 
Ignorance  and  race  prejudice, 

238 
Illogical  statements,  105 
Imagination,  43 
Imitation,  16,  117  ff.,  128.,  133, 

138  ff.,  156 
Impingement  of  environment, 

195 
Improvements  and  invention, 

176 
Imagination,  43 
Immediate  suggestion,  124 
Immigrants,  257 
Immodesty,  150 
Incline  of  invention,  the,  179 
Incongruous  actions  and  laugh- 
ter, 104 
Indirect  suggestion,  118 
Individual  ascendancy,  19 

Differentiation,  139 

Instincts,  56 
Individual,  nature  of,  13 
Individuality,  14,  55,  167  ff.,  184 
Industrial  conflicts,  222,  223 
Inequality,  fashion,  140 
Infant,  the,  82,  94 


300 


Social  Psychology 


Inquisitive  instinct,  the,  64 
Insinuation,  124 
Instincts,  individual,  56 

Social,  14,  25,  56  ff. 
Instinctive  groups,  214 

Reactions,  31  ff. 
Intellectual  leaders,  190 

Stagnation,  279 
Interests,  no 
Internationalism,  255  ff. 
Inscrutableness,  188 
Invention,  15,  16,  140,  152,  169, 

278 
Irrational  customs  and  conven- 
tions, 160 
Isolation  and  prejudice,  241 


Japanese  children,  121 
Jealousy,  79 
Jews,  persecution  of,  145 
Joy,  75 


Kant,  cited,  100 


Laboratory,  48 
Language,  94 
Laughable,  the,  100 
Laughter,  causes  of,  100  ff. 
Law,  264 

Advantages  of,  19 

In  Utopia,  20 
Lazarus  and  Stcinthal,  21 
Leadership,  15,  169,  184  ff.,  202, 
282 


League  of  Nations,  a,  66,  226, 
231,  235,  284 

Learning,  47 

Leisure  classes,  146 

Libraries  and  indirect  sugges- 
tion, 121 

Lincoln,  132 

Logic  of  invention,  the,  181 

Lombroso,  cited,  193 

Love,  80 

Loyalty,  246  ff. 

Luxury,  148 

Lynching,  205 


Magnetic  leaders,  189 
Magyars,  239 
Manipulators,  group,  190 
Margin  of  invention,  184,  185 
Material  inventions,  175 
Maternal  love,  80 
Marginal  freedom,  35,  36,  46, 

187 
McDougall,  William,  cited,  24, 

78,  125 
Mediate  suggestion,  124 
Memory,  44 

Training  of,  45 
Mental  energy,  185 
Middle  classes,  the  20 
Migration,  278 
Millerism,  145 
Mirthful  self,  100 
Mob,  the,  204 
Mob  curve,  the,  204 
Money  cost  of  war,  234 
Mongolians,  239 
Moral  dynamo,  187 


Index 


301 


Moral  teaching,  119 
Morale,  nature  of,  247 
More,  Thomas,  cited,  20 
Motor  character  of  ideas,  117 


National  conflicts,  285 
Nationalism,  249  ff.,  254 
Natural  evolutions,  177 
Nature,  human,  112 
Nebuchadnezzar,  170 
Necessity  and  invention,  176 
Negative  social  control,  268  3. 
Negro,  African,  238 

American,  240 
Neutrality  of  inventions,  178 
New  ideas,  277 
Newspapers,  209,  210 
Nicolai,  G.  F.,  cited,  70,  235 
Nietzsche,  F.,  230 
Nouns,  nature  of,  96 
Novelty,  140 


Obedience,  189 
Occupational  groups,  212  S. 

Minds,  212  G. 
Odin,  cited,  194 
Oligarchy,  280 
Open  conflicts,  221,  222 
Opinion,  public,  246 
Orano,  Paolo,  cited,  26 
Organization  of  groups,  192, 

233 
Organized  knowledge,  127 
Organized  ability,  188 
Ornamentation,  146 
Overstatement,  106 


Pacific  patriotism,  252 
Painful  new  ideas,  277 
Panic,  205 

Pantomimic  gestures,  95 
Parental  instincts,  60 
Parliamentary  rules,  206 
Partisanship,  253 
Participator  crowds,  203,  204 
Patriotism,  social  psychology 

of,  247  ff. 
Perfect  personality,  the,  1 11 
Permanent  groups,  211  3. 
Personal  beliefs,  264 
Personality,  13,  14,  18,  27,  83, 
III 

And  activity,  47 

And  freedom,  46 

And  habit,  38 

Social,  55  ff. 

The  perfect,  in 
Physical  relief,  102 
Physique,  185 
Pity,  78 

Planetary  good  feeling,  256 
Plateaus  of  invention,  179 
Plato,  cited,  19,  40,  132 
Play,  61 
Play-groups,  62 
Pleasurable  feelings,  41 
Pogroms,  145,  205 
Poland,  145 
Political  autocracy,  280 

Shrewdness,  86 
foor  memories,  45 
-Positive  social  control,  270  ff. 
Prejudice,  213 

Race,  237  flF. 
Prestige  suggestion,  127,  130, 
141,  153 


302 


Social  Psychology 


Printing  press,  the,  208 
Private  property,  66 
Problem, solving,  18,  65,  170  ff. 

196 
Productive  conflicts,  222 
Professional  patriotism,  250 
Profiteering  patriotism,  250 
Progress,  social,  222,  276  fl. 
Progressiveness,  144 
Projective  self,  the,  144 
Promotion,  desire  for,  84 
Protective  philosophy,  268 
Psalmist,  the,  248 
Psychic  energy,  186 
Psychology,  general,  27,  31 

Functional,  31 

Structural,  31 

Text-books  of,  27 
Psychology  of  dress,  147  ff. 
Public,  era  of,  211 
Public  opinion,  246,  266  ff. 
Pugnacious  impulses,  68  ff., 

221,  229 

Patriotism,  250 
Pun,  the,  106 
Punishment,  69 

Solitary,  58 
Purposive  groups,  214 


Questioning,  the  value  of,  173 


Race  differences,  240 
Experience,  41,  42 
Prejudice,  157,  237  ff. 
Preservation,  237 

Racial  nature,  125 


Racing,  fashion,  144 
Rational  imitation,  131 
Ratzenhofer,  Gustave,  228 
Reactions,  conscious,  39 

Habitual,  34  ff. 

Instinctive,  31  ff. 
Reading  publics,  209 
Reason,  44 
Recidivism,  203 
Recruits,  army,  84 
Reliability  and  habit,  38 
Religious  beliefs,  264 

Dogmatism,  280 
Remembering,  43 
Representative  groups,  191 
Reputability,  141 
Respect,  78 

Restraint,  social,  261  ff. 
Revenge,  69,  79 
Reverence,  76 
Revolution,  274  ff. 
Rhetorical  errors,  106 
Ridicule,  108 
Ritual,  263 
Romantic  love,  80 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  123 
Ross,  Edward  Alsworth,  22,  24, 

43,  125,  130,  138,  143,  206 
Rules  of  order,  206 
Russia,  280 


Satire,  108 

Sawyer,  Tom,  123 

Schopenhauer,  cited,  100 

Sects,  214,  215 

Self,  communicative,  94  ff. 

Dependable,  109  ff. 

Mirthful,  100  ff. 


Index 


303 


Social,  81  ff. 

Socially  reflected,  84 

True,  118 
Selfishness,  43 
Self-respect,  78 
Sensationalism,  141 
Sentiment,  the  nature  of,  T]  ff. 
Separation  and  race  prejudice, 

239 
Sex  differences,  126,  146 

Instincts,  58 
Shame,  79 
Sidis,  Boris,  cited,  loi,  105,  118, 

124 
Sighele,  Scipio,  cited,  26,  208, 

215 

Sign  language,  95 
Simmel,  Georg,  227,  228 
Slang,  origin  of,  97 
Slavery,  fashion,  150 
Small,  Albion  W.,  cited,  228 
Social  attitude,  20 

Change  276  ff. 

Coercion,  262  ff. 

Consciousness,  82 

Control,  IS,  16,  26 

Emotions,  75  ff. 

Encouragements,  270 

Environment,  42,  82,  83,  iii 

Evil,  the,  58 

Instincts,  nature  of,  14,  25, 
56  ff. 

Institutions,  basis  of,  34 

Laughter,  108 

Mean,  the,  20 

Mirror  self,  the,  84 

Personality,  14 

Progress,  276  ff. 


Respect,  195 

Restraint,  261  ff. 

Self  development,  83 

Stimulations,  I75 

Telesis,  270 

Unrest,  196 
Social  Psychology,  age  of,  18 

Development  of,  18 

Father  of,  20 

Field  of,  20 

In  colleges,  18 

Line  of  procedure  in,  17 
Socialism,  67,  284 
Sociality,  14 
Socialization,  229 
Socially  dependable  self,  109 
Socially  reflected  self,  84,  207 
Sociocratic  thinking,  285 
Socio-rational  imitation,  161, 

162 
Soldiers,  232 
Sorrow,  75 

Spectator  crowds,  203 
Speech,  freedom  of,  203 
Spencer,  Herbert,  cited,  100 
Stability  and  habit,  38 
Standardization,  dangers  of, 

168 
State,  the,  215,  216 
Steam  engine,  the,  176 
Stone,  Melville  E.,  cited,  240 
Structural  psychology,  31 
Struggle  for  existence,  20  ff. 
Submissive  instinct,  57 
Suggestion-imitation  phenom- 
ena, 14,  117  ff. 
Suggestibility,  125  ff.,  202  ff., 

204 
Sully,  James,  cited,  100 


304 


Social  Psychology 


Super-patriotism,  254 
Superiority,  131 
Survival  of  the  fittest,  224 
Symbols  and  language,  95 
Sympathy,  109 


Taboo,  263 

Taft,  W.  H.,  109 

Talent,  special,  192  ff. 

Tarde,  Gabriel,  cited,  22,  24, 
130,  158,  215,  225  ff. 

Target-hitting,  17 

Tattooing,  147 

Team-work,  63 

Telesis,  social,  270 

Temperament,  109,  125 

Temporary  groups,  202  ff. 

Theory  of  social  progress,  a, 
281 

Thomas,  W.  I.,  cited,  21,  34 

Tone  of  consciousness,  40 

Training,  value  of,  194 

Traitorism,  256 

Transformations  and  inven- 
tions, 177 

True  patriotism,  254 

Turgot,  cited,  281 

Twain,  Mark,  123 

Tyranny  of  fashion,  151 


Unconscious  attitudes,  118 

Imitation,  128  ff. 
Understatement,  106,  107 


Unequal  conflicts,  223 
Unity,  group,  232 
Universalism,  Christian,  258 
Unintended  suggestion,  107 
Unrest,  social,  196 
Utility,  155,  157 
Utopia,  20 


Values,  group,  247 
Veblen,  Thorstein,  cited,  26 
Verbs,  nature  of,  96 
Vices,  36 

Vicious  circle  of  fashion  imi- 
tation, 143 
Virility,  233 
Virtues,  36 
Vocal  language,  96 
Vocational  guidance,  184,  196 
Volition,  44 

Vortex,  the  fashion,  139 
Vulgarity  in  fashions,  150 


Wallas,  Graham,  cited,  26 
War,  social  psychology  of, 

229  ff.,  285 
Ward,  Lester  R,  cited,  21,  194 
Watt  , James,  176 
Wealth,  66 
Will  to  live,  the,  56 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  231 
Woman,  ability  of,  193 
Work  and  play,  62 
World  War,  the,  233,  251 


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